chap 12 part 1

• Mary Jane Morrow Ward: 'It is rewarding in the sense of having shared the results of your work and efforts with colleagues of having contributed in some small way to the nursing profession and having learned much about yourself in the process.'
• Learning theories


  Guidelines or principles that direct an individual to understand the meaning of an event or situation
• Theories provide basic knowledge that underpin the teaching-learning process
• Theories and practice are interrelated. They explain the relationship of each other since without theories, there can be no practice and practice can be irrelevant without theories
• Although transition from theory to practice is difficult, a little critical thinking and reflective thought, reveals that the study of human learning theory, types of learning, and forces that influence learning can provide guidelines for practice and help teacher establish the conditions necessary to achieve learning outcomes
• Over the years, theories of learning and the study of specific factors and conditions that influence learning have universal applicability
• Learning principles have been generated for particular age groups
• Teacher who makes decisions based on these principles


  Using the best available techniques to guide professional teaching behavior
• The following principles of learning are supported by empirical evidence and have broad applicability to all types of learners, yet modification based on individual differences and particular circumstances would be useful
• Satisfying Stimulus


  If response to a stimulus is satisfying to oneself, the tendency for this is to be repeated under similar circumstances. The behavior is reinforced, developed, and internalized.
• Hoozer: 'Reward is more effective than punishment in changing behavior. However, there should be a slow shift away from extrinsic to intrinsic reward'
• Reinforcement


  Immediate, positive, tangible or intangible reinforcement through praise, reward, or recognition are major conditions for successful behavioral change. Negative reinforcement slows down the rate at which behavior occurs but does not eliminate it. However, frequent negative reinforcement may either suppress or demotivate the learner causing unhealthy behavior or impaired learning process.
• Overlearning


  Overlearning increases memory and improves learning performance. Frequent application of the learned principles into practice strengthens the learning process and can easily be internalized and shown in students' attitude and behavior.
• Verbal and Non-verbal Associations


  A critical prerequisite to behavior change is the establishment of verbal and nonverbal connections. Knowledge put into practice provides a significant meaning of interrelationships between what is real and what is ideal. Forgetting occurs because of interference of new learning experiences with previously acquired ones. Previous practices may be replaced by current trends which makes previous knowledge irrelevant.
• Cognitive-perceptual readiness and internal motivation

  These are mandatory conditions for behavioral change. The student who has the desire to learn regarding the subject matter makes comprehension and retention easy, whereas, students who are not interested to learn make teaching and learning difficult.
• The Ordering of Information

  This influences the ease with which learning takes place. Systematic and dynamic presentation of subject matter consistent with students' readiness to learn motivate active and productive learning process.
• Stimulus-response associations and discrimination abilities


  These are prerequisites to chained behaviors. However, connection or association cannot be established by mere repetition of a response.
• ICE-UNESCO: 'If as teachers, you have been helping students develop their skills that would make them independent learners, you are doing well because you have prepared them for life in the knowledge arena in which we all now have.'
• Cognitive Constructs


  The cognitive constructs of perceptual imagery and recognition of features, such as form, spatial arrangement, texture, and so on are prerequisites to concept formation.
• Multiple discrimination and generalization responses

  Students observe and analyze events and its relevance to current practice, retains those that are useful and eliminates those that are not. These can be done through active sensory, cognitive and emotional participation and direct physical involvement in learning process.
• Previous Knowledge


  Prerequisites to principles of learning and perception are concept acquisition, and recall of previous knowledge learned, while Prerequisites to problem-solving behaviors are perception, association, discrimination, concept formation, generalization, recall and selection responses.
• Critical thinking skills


  The use of critical thinking skills is a prerequisite to acquiring these cognitive psychomotor skills. This include the process of perceptual awareness, reception, memory, recall, discrimination, association, generalization, chaining, and decision-making responses. Psychomotor behaviors include affection and cognition, while Cognitive knowledge, include comprehension, application, analysis, and synthesis responses which precede evaluation responses.
• Flexibility and adaptation


  Flexibility is the ability of students to change and allow for more ways to expand the learning process. Adaptation to change to suit oneself into different events and situations in order to speed up the learning process. Developing general patterns of personal social, and emotional adjustment include affecting, receiving, responding, valuing, and organization responses.
• Feedback


  Feedback about performance, which includes why and of how topics learned improves learning. If feedback is given too late, it will have little value. Crucial conditions for behavioral change include being assertive, sharing, active, overt, short periods of practice and periods of rest, positive reinforcement, and corrective feedback.
• Balanced growth and development patterns

  Learning can be enhanced by matching learning activities with the learner's level of development, cognition, abilities, styles, strengths, modalities, and preferences.
• A combination of all these principles of learning facilitates the students understanding and internalizing the learning process.
• Five (5) Processes of Learning

  1. Learning is a treasure within

  2. Learning to know

  3. Learning to do

  4. Learning to live together in peace and harmony

  5. Learning to be
• Learning is a treasure within

  It stresses that each individual must be equipped to seize learning opportunities throughout life, both to broaden his knowledge, skills and attitude, and adapt to a changing complex and interdependent world.
• Learning to know


  This is less concerned with the acquisition of structured knowledge but more with the mastery of learning tools. This emphasizes the integration of broad general knowledge with in-depth analysis of selected number of causes.
• UNESCO, 1996: 'Learning to know is the passport to lifelong education'
• Learning to know the students' needs and to develop learn-to-learn skills


  • Learning to read with comprehension
  • Listening
  • Observing
  • Asking questions
  • Data gathering
  • Note taking
  • Assessing, processing, selecting and using domains
• Learning to do


  The acquisition of competence that enables a student to deal with a variety of situations and work in teams or groups. This further improves knowledge, life skills, personal qualities, aptitude and attitude. Learning to do requires a skillful, creative and discerning application of knowledge. An individual must learn how to think creatively, critically, and holistically and how to deeply understand the information received.
• Learning to live together in peace and harmony


  Learning is a dynamic, holistic and lifelong process through which mutual respect, understanding, caring and sharing, compassion, social responsibility, solidarity, acceptance and tolerance of diversity among individuals and groups are internalized.
• Learning to live together in peace and harmony - Efforts


  • Develop broader or better perceptions of attitude toward self and others
  • Professional behavior and interactions with others
  • Understand others' history, traditions and spiritual values
  • A spirit of respect for the values of pluralism and peace
• Learning to be


  The aim of education is the complete fulfillment of man, understanding complexities of the personality, expressions and commitments as an individual, member of a family and community, citizen and producer, inventor of techniques and creative mentors.
• Learning to be - Anchored on

  • Self-knowledge and relationship with other people
  • Successful personal experience and personality training
  • Highly individualized process and interactive social experiences
  • Freedom of thought, judgment, feeling and imagination to develop talents to keep control of their lives
  • Conscientization which is the process of being aware of contradictions existing within oneself and in society and gradually being able to bring about personal and social transformation
• Learning is Unitary and Holistic


  The learner, responds to the "whole" situation or total pattern as a "whole person" in a unified way. To make learning unitary and holistic, the student must: Respond simultaneously intellectually, emotionally, and physically. React to the whole learning situation rather than to a particular single stimulus. Unless interference occurs, the student's total reaction is coordinated and integrated toward achievement of her goals.
• Learning is Individual and Social


  Learning is an entirely individual matter for the simple reason that every behavior has to do with her own learning. Each student must learn using her own style of learning. Learning is social because it takes place in a group as some type of response to the social environment of the individual.
• Factors giving rise to differences among individuals

  • Heredity and genetic factors which influence personality development to a great extent
  • Family upbringing and religious orientation
  • Educational opportunity to become intellectually prepared, responsible, socially aware of his personality
  • He
• Differences among individuals


  • High intellectual ability
  • Low intellectual ability
  • Able to express themselves comfortably
  • Difficulty in self-expression
  • Leaders in group activities
  • Only tend to follow
  • Slow and deliberate to action
  • Quick, active and fast-moving
  • Social
  • Shy and retiring
  • Definitely mechanical
  • Aesthetic and find security and affection in family and friends
  • Seek to satisfy needs through classmates and teachers