chap 11

• Stimulus Response theories


  Equated with the behavioral modification theory, using simple external stimuli to observe subject's learning responses to positive and negative reinforcement
• Ivan Pavlov's Classical Conditioning Theory


  Investigated the capacity of animals to learn new stimuli and connect them to natural reflexes, allowing non-natural cues to elicit a natural reflex
• Classical Conditioning


  1. Neutral stimulus (bell) paired with unconditioned stimulus (food)

  2. Conditioned stimulus (bell) elicits conditioned response (salivation)
• Factors affecting conditioned stimulus-response relationship

  • Frequency of conditioned and unconditioned stimulus pairings
  • Timing of stimulus presentation
  • Similarities between conditioned stimuli
• Extinction


  Conditioned response gradually eliminated by repeatedly presenting conditioned stimulus without unconditioned stimulus
• Spontaneous recovery


  Extinct conditioned response reappears after a rest period when conditioned stimulus is applied again
• Edward Thorndike's Connectionism Theory

  First scientific theory of learning, focused on effects of reward, punishment, success/failure, satisfaction/annoyance on the learner
• Thorndike's 3 laws of learning

  • Law of exercise/repetition
  • Law of effect
  • Law of readiness
• Law of exercise/repetition


  The more often a stimulus-induced response is repeated, the longer it will be retained
• Law of effect


  A response is strengthened if followed by pleasure and weakened if followed by displeasure
• Law of readiness


  Certain conduction units in a given situation are more predisposed to function than others
• B.F. Skinner's Operant Conditioning Theory

  Describes the effects of consequences of a particular behavior on the future occurrence of that behavior
• 4 types of Operant Conditioning

  • Positive reinforcement
  • Negative reinforcement
  • Punishment
  • Extinction
• Positive reinforcement


  Reward or recognition that strengthens behavior
• Negative reinforcement


  Punishment or extinction that weakens behavior
• Punishment


  Weakens a particular behavior through the consequence of experiencing a negative condition
• Extinction


  Weakens a particular behavior through the consequence of not experiencing either a positive or negative condition
• Concepts of Behaviorism


  • Naturalistic
  • Man is nothing more than a machine
  • Men are "biological machines" with no influence of mind
  • Not responsible for actions
  • Manipulative
• Edwin Ray Guthrie's Contiguity Theory


  Learning based on stimulus-response association, movements are small stimulus-response combinations
• One-trial learning


  Stimulus pattern gains full associative strength on first pairing with response
• Associative inhibition


  Forgetting due to interference as stimuli become associated with new responses
• Cognitive Theories on Learning


  Focus on learner's ability to solve problems based on past experiences and develop new solutions
• Kohler's Insight Theory


  Animals can solve problems through understanding and insight learning, not just trial-and-error
• Kohler's experiment with chimpanzee Sultan

  • Sultan stacked boxes to reach bananas, demonstrating insight learning
• Kurt Lewin's Field Theory


  Behavior derived from totality of coexisting facts in a "dynamic field" or life space, rather than past or future
• Zeigarnik Effect


  Unfinished tasks are better remembered than completed ones
• Jerome Bruner's Discovery Theory


  Inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory where learner draws on past experiences and knowledge to discover new facts and relationships
• Constructive Learning Theory


  • Encourages active engagement
  • Promotes motivation and interest
  • Promotes autonomy, responsibility, independence
  • Develops creativity and problem solving
• Psychological environment


  The environment as the person perceives and understands it
• The Field Theory


  1. The Zeigarnik Effect

  2. Waiters and waitresses in a café in Berlin did not write down orders but kept them in mind

  3. After customers paid, waiters and waitresses barely remembered the orders
• Jerome Brunner's Discovery Theory


  An inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on past experiences and existing knowledge to discover facts, relationships and new truths
• Constructive learning theory


  • Encourages active engagement
  • Promotes motivation and interest to learn
  • Promotes autonomy, responsibility, independence
  • Develops creativity and problem solving skills
  • Initiates a tailored learning experience
• Critics have cited disadvantages of the constructive learning theory
• Rumelhart's Schema Theory


  • A theory about how knowledge is represented and how that representation facilitates the use of such knowledge
  • Schema is a form of retrieval structure, identifying elements from earlier experience which can be reused in current situation
  • Schemata (knowledge structures/frameworks) guide comprehension and memory of information
• David Ausubel's Assimilation Theory


  The most meaningful cognitive learning occurs as a result of interaction between new information and the individual's relevant cognitive structures they already possess
• Ausubel's knowledge dimensions


  • Meaningful reception learning
  • Rote reception learning
  • Meaningful discovery learning
  • Rote discovery learning
• Types of Meaningful Learning

  • Representational or Vocabulary Learning
  • Concept Learning
  • Propositional Learning
• Concept formation


  Develops in young children from objects seen and heard
• Concept assimilation


  Develops in school children and adults with empirical reasoning and logical implications of events leading towards knowledge acquisition and application
• For meaningful learning, the student must adopt an appropriate learning 'set', the learning task must have logical meaning, and the student's cognitive structures must contain relevant ideas