General Terms

• Adenosine Triphosphate is a type of nucleic acid and the main energy currency of the cell.
• In cellular respirations, organisms break down glucose to release energy or ATP
• The process of adding a phosphate group back onto an ADP molecule is called phosphorylation
• ATP has three phosphates that can be broken off by hydrolysis (adding water) to form ADP + Pi
• Seeds use glucose that is stored in the form of starch to make ATP for germination or growth
• Glycolysis is the first step of cellular respiration where one molecule of glucose is converted into two pyruvate molecules with the production of two ATP molecules, happens in the cytosol of the cell
• In Glycolysis, 2 molecules of ADP is converted into 2 molecules of ATP, known as the substrate level phosphorylation.
• In glycolysis, 2 molecules of NAD+ is reduced to 2 molecules of NADH
• Oxidation is a reaction where the oxidation state goes up, there is a loss of electrons, gain of oxygen atoms, or a loss of hydrogen atoms
• Reduction is a reaction where the oxidation number decrease, there is a gain of electrons, loss of oxygen atoms or gain of hydrogen atoms
• The first five reactions of glycolysis refers to the investment phase, wherein there is loss of 2 ATP
• The last five reactions of glycolysis is referred to as the payoff phase, where there is a gain of 4 ATP molecules per molecule of glucose
• dehydrogenase is an enzyme that catalyzes the reversible reaction of a hydrogen atom or removes the hydrogen
• kinase is an enzyme that helps in the transfer of a phosphate group
• isomerase is an enzyme that catalyzes rearrangement reactions
• In pyruvate oxidation, pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA that happens in the mitochondria
• pyruvate dehydrogenase is the enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl CoA
• The citric acid cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.
• In one turn of Krebs cycle, it produces 3 molecules of NADH, 1 molecule of FADH2, and 1 molecule of ATP
• one molecule of glucose equates to two turns of Krebs cycle, which it will yield 6 molecules of NADH, 2 molecules of FADH2 and 2 ATP molecules
• In electron transport chain, NADH will loose electrons to complex I, which will then transfer the electrons to complex II
• After complex IV, electrons will flow in mitochondrial matrix, where it will meet up with oxygen and hydrogen ions to form water
• Electron transport chain has four protein complexes (complex I-IV) and two mobile carriers (Coenzyme Q and cytochrome c)
• As the electrons are transferred through the membrane proteins across the electron transport chain, protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space
• Chemiosmosis is the process that uses the electrochemical gradient created by the electron transport chain to produce ATP
• ATP synthase is an enzyme found on the inner mitochondrial membrane that catalyzes the synthesis of ATP using ADP and Pi as substrate
• In electron transport chain, 1 molecule of NADH will yield 3 ATP molecules, 1 FADH2 molecules produces 2 ATP molecules
• During cellular respiration, one glucose molecule yields a maximum number of 38 ATP, 34 are produced in Electron Transport Chain, 2 are produced in Glycolysis and the other 2 is in Krebs Cycle
• However, the 38 ATP molecules that are produced is only ideal because some protons in intermembrane space can leak through back to mitochondrial matrix without even going to ATP synthase
• In cellular respiration, when 2 ATP molecules are removed because it act as a fuel to carry the pyruvate from the cytoplasm to the mitochondria, the net total of ATP molecules will be 36
• In lactic acid fermentation, the pyruvate that was made in the glycolysis will be converted into lactate
• Lactic acid fermentation and ethanol fermentation are anaerobic cellular respiration
• Lactic acid fermentation happens in the muscle cells of the body
• In ethanol fermentation, the pyruvate that was made in glycolysis undergoes decarboxylation, converting it into a molecule called acetaldehyde
• In ethanol fermentation, acetaldehyde that was converted from pyruvate is reduced to ethanol
• Ethanol fermentation happens in the cytosol of the yeast cell.
• The cause of the rising of bread when there is no source of oxygen (ethanol fermentation) is due to the emission of carbon dioxide molecule in pyruvate when being converted into acetaldehyde through the process of decarboxylation