~Paper 2

• Urbanisation

  An increasing percentage of a country's population comes to live in cities and towns
• Megacity


  A city with a population over 10 million (e.g. New York and Tokyo)
• Rural-urban migration

  The movement of people from rural areas (countryside) to urban areas (towns and cities)
• Natural increase

  The growth of the population which occurs when the birth rate is higher than the death rate
• The rate of urbanisation is now highest in LIC/ NEE cities. This is because there is a significant difference in quality of life between urban and rural areas. There is high amount of rural-urban migration.
• Push factors

  Reasons to leave the rural area a person lives in (e.g. fewer opportunities)
• Pull factors


  Reasons a person wishes to move to an urban area (e.g. healthcare opportunities)
• Natural increase is likely to be high in cities as there is a high proportion of young adults between 18-35 and this group of people are the most likely to have children. A younger population results in a smaller proportion of older people in the city even when better healthcare sees death rates fall and life expectancy increase
• Some HICs are experiencing the opposite of rural-urban migration, this is because rural areas have a high quality of life
• Favelas

  Squatter settlements or slums in Brazil where people build homes on land they do not own, partly caused by high costs of housing in Rio
• Challenges in squatter settlements

  • Crime
  • Health
  • Services
  • Construction
• The urban poor living in Rio's squatter settlements face many problems. With a rapidly growing population, these issues are likely to get worse.
• The government is attempting to improve the lives of urban dwellers through urban planning policies
• Favela Bairro Project

  1. Upgrading of favelas rather than demolition and re-housing

  2. Providing materials to residents to improve their own houses

  3. Installing basic infrastructure such as roads, electricity, water, and sanitation

  4. Site and service project where the local authority provides land and essential services, and residents construct their own houses
• The Favela Bairro Project fosters a sense of community identity and gives locals a chance to learn a trade. This helps to improve their skills, employability and reduce unemployment.
• Despite the Favela Bairro Project's successes, it is costly to run due to the continued rapid growth of Rio de Janeiro. Infrastructure requires constant maintenance and people need training in construction. There is also a need for more training to improve literacy and employment in the area.
• There is also still a source of inequality as some favelas were demolished to make way for the 2016 Olympic Games.
• The small town of Campo Grande saw 800 new homes being built. For some residents, the houses are better than the favelas. However, Campo Grande lacks a sense of community, has no shops and is a 90 minute drive from the city centre.
• Urban sprawl is defined as the expansion and unplanned growth of urban areas into rural areas
• Population growth through national and international migration has caused urban sprawl and the growth of commuter settlements e.g. Milton Keynes in Buckinghamshire
• Urban sprawl has led to increased food risk in these areas due to more impermeable surfaces such as concrete
• A large urban population produces lots of household and commercial waste that needs to be disposed of
• The most common ways of disposing waste are underground (50% of waste is disposed this way) or incineration-burning waste
• Water supply is good in London and the government manages it well
• Problems faced by cities

  • Huge energy consumption
  • Wasting water
  • Problems with water disposal
  • Lack of green spaces
• Sustainable living in cities

  Involves water and energy conservation, waste management and creating open space
• Freiburg in Germany set a goal in the 1970s of becoming sustainable not just for the environment but with focuses on the economy and social impacts of living in the city
• Economic sustainability in Freiburg

  • Providing people with employment so they can afford to live in the area
  • More than 10,000 residents employed in green industry
  • Large cluster of solar panel manufacturers in an area nicknamed "Solar Valley"
  • People of different skill and education levels are all needed in the area, bringing in more money to the local economy
• Social sustainability in Freiburg

  • Locals can invest in renewable energy sources
  • Locals given financial rewards for using reusable nappies and composting their green waste
• Environmental planning in Freiburg

  • Waste reduction - recycles over 1 million corks per year, has 350 community collection points for recycling, produces biogas from food and waste, recycles over 80% of packaging
  • Rainwater is retained and reused to reduce water usage
  • 43% of the urban district is woodland, with 5,000 hectares of surrounding forestry
  • Urban greening through planting trees, grasses and plants to attract wildlife and act as a carbon sink
• Outline one advantage of recycling waste
• Population growth has led to problems in many urban areas, including traffic congestion which has major economic effects of increased journey times, higher fuel consumption and greater risk of accidents
• Problems caused by traffic congestion in urban areas

  • Increase in car ownership leads to more cars on the road
  • Road quality issues
  • Public transport problems
  • Parking issues
• How transport can become more sustainable

  1. Park and ride schemes

  2. Congestion charging schemes

  3. Vehicle exclusion zones

  4. Permit holder parking

  5. Car-sharing

  6. Prioritised road lanes

  7. Low emission zones

  8. Separate cycle lanes

  9. Traffic calming
• London's transport strategies

  • Cycle routes - lanes along main roads, cycle superhighways, Boris bike hire scheme
  • Buses - 2600 hybrid buses, information boards, new routes, priority lanes
  • Integrated transport system - links different forms of public transport, Oyster card
  • Congestion charge - motorists pay £15 to drive in central London
• The number of people cycling in London has increased from 1% to 15% in the past 50 years
• The congestion charge dramatically reduced the number of cars in London by 21% in just 3 years, and also reduced accidents, pollution and shortened journey times
• The Oyster card makes it easier for passengers to use public transport as they can pay for journeys on all forms with one card
• The congestion charge meant more people were likely to use public transport as it was cheaper than driving
• There is a need for more training to improve literacy and employment in the area