Chemistry

• Properties of Solids

  Definite state of matter Fixed shape & volume Particles are tightly packed

  Crystaline - The atoms/ions/molecules make up the solid in a regular, well-defined arrangement

  Amorphous - Do not have much order in their structure & not arranged in a regular order
• Matter


  • Always in constant, random motion & possess energy of motion
• Principles of Kinetic Molecular Theory

  • All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms
  • Particles are in constant, random motion
  • Particles in motion have kinetic energy & their motion increases as they gain energy
  • There is a transfer of energy between particles as these particles collide with each other
  • Collisions between these particles are completely elastic
  • Molecular motion is greatest in gasses, lesser in liquids, & least in solids
• Types of Attractive Forces

  • Intramolecular Forces (Intra - Within)
  • Intermolecular Forces (Inter - Among & Between)
• Kinetic Molecular Theory

  • Explains why the statement of matter differ in movements & arrangements
  • Describes the forces between molecular & the energy they possess
  • Describes the temperature & pressure of matter
• Metallic

  Compounds that are completely comprised of metal atoms that are held together by metallic bonds
• Density


  Physical property of matter that expresses a relationship of mass to volume (The more mass, the denser)
• Properties of Liquids

  • Substance that flows freely but is of constant volume
  • Surface Tension - Water molecules attract 1 another
  • Supports objects with a low density
  • Capillary Action - When a liquid defies gravity & moves up a narrow tube/space
  • Adhesion - When forces of attraction exist between different types of particles
  • Cohesion - When forces of attraction exist between the same type of particles
  • Viscosity - Thickness of water & liquid's resistance to flow
  • Vapor pressure - Ability to sublime/evaporate into gas & freeze into solid
  • Polarity - A molecule is polar when it has a net dipole, resulting from the net effect of the polar bonds
• Properties of Gases

  • Density - Ratio of the mass & volume of a substance
  • Compressibility - Ability to compress into a singular location
  • Relative change in the volume of the gas with respect to the change in pressure at constant temperature
  • Expandability - Expands to fill an entire space
  • Pressure - Force that gas exerts on the container boundaries
  • Measure of the average linear momentum of moving molecules of the gas
  • Diffusibility - Random molecular movement from areas of high partial pressure to areas of low partial pressure
• Plasma

  Superheated matter<|>Mix of positive charged ions and negatively charged electrons<|>Electrically charged gas (atoms are far apart), so it has very high electrical conductivity<|>Due to the electric conductivity, it has more energy than the 3 other states<|>Able generate magnetic fields due to the moving electric charges<|>Due to the heat, the electrons are ripped away from the atoms forming ionized gas
• 4th State of Matter
• Differences between Matter Plasma and Blood Plasma

  • MATTER PLASMA - 4th state of matter, consisting of a gas of ions and free electrons
  • BLOOD PLASMA - Yellowish fluid component of blood in which blood cells are suspended
• The use of the term "plasma" in both contexts is coincidental & unrelated
• Examples of Plasma

  • Lightning
  • Aurora/Aurorae
  • Rocket Thrusters
  • Arc Welding Arcs
  • Stars
  • Tail of Comet
  • Earth's Ionosphere
  • Nuclear Fireball
• Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC)


  Quantum phenomenon in Bose gases in which a large number of boson particles simultaneously occupy the ground state of a system<|>Created by being cooled to an extremely cold temperature at absolute zero
• Fermionic Condensate


  Similar to BEC but boson particles are replaced with fermionic particles (fermions)<|>Temperature to be created: Below 50 nanokelvin (ifty one-billionths of a kelvin, or 50−9 kelvin)
• Quantum Mechanical Tunneling
• Plasma physicists had to come up with a name for the amorphous state of matter that they were just starting to observe and likened it to an amorphous mass of blood plasma
• Greek Philosophers

  • Thales (625 - 547 BCE) - Water
  • Anaximenes (585 - 525 BCE) - Air
  • Heraclitus (535 - 475 BCE) - Fire
  • Aristotle (384 - 322 BCE) - All 4 elements (+Earth)
  • Democritus (460 - 370 BCE) & Leucippus (Teacher) (500 BCE) - Atoms
• Democritus' Atomic Theory

  • Matter is made up of discrete particles
  • There is an empty space between particles
  • The particles are in constant motion
  • There are forces that act between the particles
• Famous Quote: "Nothing exists except atoms and empty space; everything else is opinion." (May not be accurate)
• Physical Properties of Matter

  • SOLID - Strong attraction between particles, particles are very close together & neatly arranged, particles vibrate in place
  • LIQUID - Moderate attraction between particles, particles are very close together but not neatly arranged, particles are able to slide past each other
  • GAS - Very weak attraction between particles, particles are much further from each other, particles move rapidly in all directions
• Boiling Point

  Temperature at which the pressure of the vapor escaping from the liquids = atmospheric pressure exerted on the liquid's surface
• Boiling point is lower at mountain areas/higher altitudes
• Particles with highest kinetic energy escape first
• Boiling point is different from 1 another
• Melting Point


  Temperature at which solid turns into liquid
• Density


  Intensive property that does not depend on quantity of mass present
• Specific Gravity


  Ratio between the density of a solid/liquid to the density of water at 4°C or 1g/cm³
• Phase Changes that Require Energy

  MELTING - When heat is applied to a solid, the particles vibrate faster until it melts<|>VAPORIZATION - A liquid change into gas/vapor AT its boiling point<|>EVAPORIZATION - A liquid change into gas/vapor at a temperature BELOW its boiling point<|>SUBLIMATION - Solid iodine & solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) change directly from solid phase to gas phase
• Phase Changes that Release Energy

  CONDENSATION - Water vapor becomes liquid<|>FREEZING - Liquid becomes solid<|>DEPOSITION - Gas turns into solid
• Physical Change

  Alters the physical properties of a substance, substance remains the same chemically before and after the change, can be reverted to its original form
• Chemical Change

  Forms new substances with different chemical compositions, chemical bonds are broken & new bonds are formed, leading to the creation of new substances, cannot be reverted to its original form
• Some Substances & Their Description

  • Water (H₂O) - 2 atoms of Hydrogen, 1 atom of Oxygen
  • Table Salt (NaCl) - 1 atom of Sodium, 1 atom of Chlorine
  • Dry Ice (CO₂) - 2 atoms of Carbon, 1 atom of Oxygen
  • Rust (Fe₂O₃) - 3 atoms of Iron, 2 atoms of Oxygen
• Atoms


  Single Neutral Particle, Protons, Neutrons, & Electrons
• Molecules

  2 or More Neutral Particles, 2 or More Atoms Bonded Together
• Static Electricity results from an imbalance between negative & positive charges of an object
• Subatomic Particles

  • Electron (e⁻) - Charge: -1, Mass: 9.109 x 10⁻²⁸ g, Location: Outside the Nucleus
  • Proton (p⁺) - Charge: +1, Mass: 1.672 x 10⁻²⁴ g, Location: Inside the Nucleus
  • Neutron (n⁰) - Charge: 0, Mass: 1.675 x 10⁻²⁴ g, Location: Inside the Nucleus
• Discovery Timeline

  • Atom (400 BC) - Democritus & Leucippus
  • Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures (1803) - John Delton
  • Electron (1897) - Joseph John (JJ Thompson)
  • Nucleus & Proton (1911 - Nucleus, 1917 - Proton) - Ernest Rutherford
  • Bhor Model (1913) - Neils Bhor
  • Wave Equation & Electric Cloud Model (1924 - Wave Equation, 1926 - Electric Cloud Model) - Erwin Schrodinger
  • Neutron (1932) - James Chadwick
• Periodicity - Trends recurring variations in element atomic structure