review 2

• • Migration was often a selective process, with the poorest of the poor lacking the resources to move. Those who migrated tended to be from the lower-middle classes.
• • Return migration was common, with many migrants eventually moving back to their places of origin, especially in the early stages of the mass migration era.
• • Emigration rates were indeed highest from the poorest regions of Europe, such as Italy, Austria-Hungary, Russia and the Balkans, in the late 19th century.
• while the poorest often lacked the means to migrate, the poorest regions did see the highest emigration rates overall. Remittances(chuyển tiền từ nước ngoài) from migrants likely encouraged more migration rather than discouraging it. And migration levels continued to rise through the late 1800s rather than declining.
•  The first estate owned up to 10% of the land in France

  • The First Estate, composed of the clergy, did not own a significant portion of French land. The nobility in the Second Estate were the major landowners
• The second estate was exempted from taxes and paid only a marginal amount

  • The Second Estate, consisting of the nobility, was largely exempted from taxes. They did not pay the taille, France's oldest direct tax, or most other important taxes
• The structures of the three estates did not allow for social mobility between the estates

  • Social mobility between the estates was extremely rare under the Ancien Régime. It was very difficult for someone born into the Third Estate to join the clergy or nobility
• • The Third Estate was actually quite diverse, comprising both urban and rural groups. It included wage laborers, free peasants who owned their own land, and villeins (serfs working on noble land) in the countryside. In the cities, it encompassed the bourgeoisie, artisans, and the poor
• The estates were based on privilege and status rather than purely economic factors. For example, the clergy and nobility in the First and Second Estates enjoyed tax exemptions and feudal privileges, even though some members were not wealthy. The Third Estate included both the prosperous bourgeoisie and the poor peasants
• the three estates were based on privilege rather than economic class, with the nobility and clergy enjoying tax exemptions and feudal rights. The Third Estate was diverse, and the estates were largely closed to social mobility.
• The differentiation thesis argues that religion became privatized and its social importance declined, rather than religion disappearing entirely. Religion was differentiated from other spheres like politics and the economy
• There were no widespread decrees banning religion from public life in Europe. Rather, religion was privatized and its social influence waned through a gradual process of differentiation
• As mentioned, religion was privatized but not banned from public life. It maintained a presence in the public sphere, just with less social influence
• While scientific knowledge expanded, it did not completely replace religious belief. The differentiation thesis argues religion was privatized, not that it was replaced by science in all areas of life
• The differentiation thesis does not argue that states became hostile(thù địch) to religion. Rather, religion was separated from the state and other social spheres, but not necessarily opposed by them
• • Germany actually had relatively low tariffs in the 1920s compared to other European countries. Its trade barriers were not a significant factor in the economic crisis following the Wall Street Crash.
• There is no evidence that Germany invested heavily in public works projects to boost employment and purchasing power in the 1920s. Its economic recovery was largely driven by American loans rather than domestic spending
• To cover their own losses, American banks began to call back their international loans to Germany

  • When the Wall Street Crash occurred, American banks urgently recalled their loans to Germany and other European countries to shore up their own finances. This sudden withdrawal of credit was devastating for Germany's economy.
• In the 1930s, German cuts in public spending increased the scale of the depression

  • In an effort to balance the budget, German Chancellor Heinrich Brüning implemented austerity measures in 1930-31, cutting government spending, wages and unemployment benefits. This contractionary fiscal policy worsened the economic downturn.
• Germany had to pay high war reparations to other European countries and its economy had insufficiently recovered from the first world war

  • Germany's economy was still fragile from the effects of World War I and the hyperinflation crisis of 1923 when the Great Depression hit. The burden of reparations payments also constrained its economic recovery in the 1920s.
•  the sudden withdrawal of American loans, the government's austerity measures, and Germany's lingering economic weaknesses from the war years all contributed to the severity of the Great Depression there.
• Many countries, especially Germany and the Soviet Union, viewed the League as an organization designed to preserve the post-war settlement that favored Britain and France. This perception undermined the League's legitimacy and universality
• The League lacked the military force to back up its decisions. It had to rely on member states to provide troops for sanctions or military action, which they were often unwilling to do. This severely limited the League's ability to prevent aggression
• President Wilson was the driving force behind the creation of the League and did not oppose it on grounds of national sovereignty (lý do chủ quyền quốc gia). The U.S. Senate's opposition to the League, not Wilson, prevented American membership
• Britain was a leading member of the League and generally supported its aims, though it was sometimes reluctant to take strong action. Isolationism was more of a factor in American politics.
• Germany became a member of the League in 1926, after fulfilling the requirements of the Treaty of Versailles. The treaty itself was ratified by Germany and the other signatories
• the League's perceived bias toward the victorious powers and its lack of an independent military force were major factors in its ineffectiveness.

  The opposition of the U.S. Senate, German resentment of the post-war order, and British reluctance to use force were less central to the League's problems.
• • The compromise established a dual monarchy where Austria and Hungary were united under the same monarch but had separate governments, parliaments, and prime ministers. They coordinated foreign policy and defense through joint ministries.
• • As part of the compromise, Austria and Hungary formed a customs union and shared postal services, though they maintained separate currencies. The customs union was reconsidered every 10 years.
• • The compromise affirmed Franz Joseph's rule as Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. There was no provision for him to abdicate.(Không có điều khoản nào cho phép ông thoái vị.)
• On the contrary, the compromise restored Hungary's autonomy and territorial integrity, which had been lost after the 1848 revolution. It gave Hungary more independence than it had enjoyed since 1526
•  the 1867 Compromise created a unique dual monarchy where Austria and Hungary shared a ruler and some institutions but had separate governments and legislatures. It restored Hungary's autonomy(quyền tự trị) while maintaining the empire's unity(hòa thuận).
• • Historians have argued that Zelinsky's model underestimated the high levels of mobility that existed in pre-industrial Europe, such as seasonal migration and nomadism. His theory portrayed pre-modern societies as more sedentary than they actually were.
• Zelinsky's mobility transition theory emphasized broad, macro-level factors like industrialization and urbanization as drivers of migration patterns. Historians have criticized this approach for neglecting the role of individual agency, social networks, and micro-level processes in shaping migration
• historians have faulted Zelinsky's theory for underestimating pre-modern mobility and for its macro-level focus, but not for misidentifying the timing of peak migration or for excluding certain countries from his analysis.
• • The rise of nationalism in 19th century Europe was primarily driven by domestic factors, such as the spread of Enlightenment ideas, the growth of print media, and the reaction against French domination. Revolts by colonial subjects in Asia and Africa were not a significant factor in the development of European nationalism.
• in the 19th century. In fact, the period saw an expansion of suffrage and the growth of mass politics, which were closely tied to the rise of nationalism.
• Philosophical works(Tác phẩm triết học) of the 18th century

  • The ideas of the Enlightenment, such as popular sovereignty(chủ quyền) and the nation as the embodiment(hiện thân) of the general will, laid the groundwork for modern nationalism. Thinkers like Rousseau and Herder promoted the idea of the nation as a natural and cultural entity.
• • The spread of print media in vernacular(ngoại quốc) languages helped create a sense of shared identity and culture among the population. Novels, newspapers, and textbooks spread nationalist ideas and promoted the idea of a national community.
• • Napoleon's conquests of German and Italian states stimulated a backlash against French domination and a desire for national unity. Intellectuals like Fichte promoted German nationalism as a reaction against French influence.