UPCAT BIOLOGY

• the structural and functional unit of life

  Cell
• Organisms reproduce their own kind. Cellular mechanisms are in place in order for any two different organisms to not be able to reproduce at random

  Reproduction
• Inherited information in the form of DNA controls how organisms grow and develop as they mature. All organisms follow specific instructions coded by their genes. The genes provide instructions that direct cellular growth and development, ensuring that the young will grow up to exhibit the same characteristics as their parents

  Growth and Developement
• All living beings respond to their environment. For example, plants grow toward a light source, climb up fences and walls, and even respond to touch. Tiny bacteria can move toward or away from chemicals (a process called chemotaxis) or light (phototaxis). The movement towards a stimulus is considered a positive response while moving away from it is a negative response.

  Response to stimulus
• Organisms take in energy to drive all their activities. It is the sum of the chemical activity of all body functions. Some organisms capture energy directly from the sun and convert it into chemical energy; others use chemical energy in molecules they take in as food.


  energy processing or metabolism
• Organisms have different mechanisms in order to maintain a beneficial internal environment. Even the smallest organisms are complex and require multiple regulatory mechanisms to coordinate internal functions, respond to stimuli, and cope with environmental stresses. Two examples of internal functions regulated in an organism are nutrient transport and blood flow.

  Regulation or Homeostasis
• Adaptations of organisms to their environment evolve as traits that help individuals survive are passed over time.

  Evolutionary Adaptation
• The essential molecules that are part of living organisms. They include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

  Biomolecules
• The fundamental element in all biomolecules, known for its ability to form four valence bonds and create stable, complex molecules through catenation.

  carbon
• Elements essential for life in large amounts, including hydrogen (H), carbon (C), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S).

  macronutrients
• are small molecules that can join together to form polymers, which are larger macromolecules.

  monomers
• are small molecules that can join together to form blank, which are larger macromolecules.

  polymers
• Simple sugars (e.g., glucose, fructose) that are the main fuel for cellular work.

  Monosaccharides
• Formed by linking two monosaccharides (e.g., sucrose).

  Disaccharides
• Long chains of monosaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose) that serve as storage molecules and structural components.

  Polysaccharides
• Molecules that do not mix well with water.

  Hydrophobic
• Made from glycerol and fatty acids, primarily for energy storage.

  fats
• Major components of cell membranes, consisting of two fatty acids and a phosphate group.

  phospolipids
• Lipids with a carbon skeleton of four fused rings (e.g., cholesterol, hormones).

  steroids
• The building blocks of proteins, each with an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a unique R group.

  amino acid
• Bonds that link amino acids together in a polypeptide chain.

  peptide bond
• The process where a protein loses its shape and function due to external factors like heat.

  denaturation
• Sequence of amino acids.


  primary structure
• Local patterns (alpha helix, beta-pleated sheet).

  secondary structure
• Three-dimensional shape.


  tertiary structure
• Multiple polypeptide chains forming a functional protein.

  Quaternary Structure
• Carries genetic information and directs its replication.

  DNA
• Assists in protein synthesis based on DNA instructions.

  RNA
• The monomers of nucleic acids, consisting of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

  Nucleotides
• Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T), and Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G) in DNA; in RNA, Uracil (U) replaces Thymine.


  basepairing
• The process by which the instructions in DNA are used to synthesize proteins through the roles of RNA.

  Gene expression
• Building blocks of carbohydrates

  monosaccharides
• Building blocks of lipids

  fatty acids, glycerol
• Building blocks of nucleic acid

  nucleotides
• Energy storage, receptors, food, structural role in plants and fungi cell walls, exoskeletons of insects

  carbohydrates
• Energy storage, membrane structure, insulation, hormones, pigments

  lipids
• Storage and transfer of genetic information

  nucleic acid
• Enzymes, structure, receptors, transport, structural role in the cytoskeleton of a cell, and cellular matrix

  proteins
• The nucleotide thymine bonds to another nucleotide, which is?

  adenine
• Excess energy in the human body is deposited to which structures?

  Adipose Tissues