socialism

• Socialism


  A protean doctrine that is difficult to define, but generally concerned with the relationship between the individual, state, and society
• Socialists' views on human nature

  • Differ from liberals and conservatives who see humans as inherently self-interested and materialistic; socialists believe these traits are products of social conditioning under capitalism, and that socialist values would enhance cooperation and collective pursuit of goals
• Socialists' view on the economic system

  They see material circumstances as key to individual well-being, and call for new economic structures based on different moral principles than capitalism
• Transition from capitalism to socialism

  Debated by different socialist theorists - some saw need to reform rather than destroy capitalism, while others insisted capitalism had to be completely overturned; contemporary socialists see it as a process of economic reforms
• First appearance of the terms 'socialist' and 'socialism' in print, though unconnected to later meanings


  1803
• 'Socialist' used to designate followers of Robert Owen's cooperative doctrines


  1827
• 'Socialisme' adopted by Saint-Simonians to describe their theory


  1830s
• Socialism vs individualism


  Socialism promoted a social system in opposition to the highly individualistic order advocated by proponents of laissez-faire economics
• Socialism arose largely in response to the economic and social consequences of the Industrial Revolution
• Three principal groups of early socialists

  • Fourierists and Saint-Simonians in France, Owenites in Great Britain
• Similarities between early socialist groups

  • Regarded social question as most important, insisted on promoting general happiness and welfare, distrustful of politics and politicians, believed economic and social aspects should be properly ordered
• Differences between early socialist groups

  • Fourierists and Owenites were community-makers, Saint-Simonians were believers in large-scale organizations and scientific planning
• Early socialists did not think in terms of proletariat or class struggle between it and the capitalist class
• Communism


  Term that came into common usage in the same period as socialism, often used in connection with the idea of socialism but with a more militant connotation
• Publication of the Communist Manifesto by Marx and Engels, marking the beginning of modern socialism


  1848
• Marx and Engels' critique of present and past societies

  • Society's political and cultural arrangements are shaped primarily by the forces of material production, and when productive modes and relations have developed as far as they can, conditions arise for social revolution to bring about more progressive forms
• Marx and Engels' view on the state and class

  • The state is a class-based institution expressing the will and interests of the dominant political and economic groups, and under capitalism the bourgeoisie seek to expand their base and overcome economic crises, digging their own graves and creating conditions for proletarian revolution
• Marx and Engels' view on the historical mission of the proletariat

  • Unlike previous insurgent classes, the proletariat under capitalism is driven to revolt through its own increasing misery, and once it wrests political power it will establish its own hegemony and eventually a classless, stateless society
• The Communist Manifesto cannot be regarded as a full exposition of Marxist doctrine, as Marx had not yet worked out his complete system of thought
• The continuing relevance of the Communist Manifesto had more to do with its potency as a clarion call for revolution than its predictive powers
• The genesis and development of socialism paralleled the rise of liberalism in Europe, but from 1889 on socialism increasingly challenged liberalism as the predominant ideology
• Teleological understanding of history

  History was moving toward a higher goal that could only be obtained through class struggle and social revolution
• The moral message embedded in their theory of historical materialism made the Communist Manifesto a landmark publication in the history of modern socialism
• Socialism during its "Mature" Phase


  Paralleled the rise of liberalism in Europe, with various schools of socialist thought coming to maturity during the second half of the nineteenth century: reformist socialism, Marxism, anarchism, and syndicalism
• Marxism tended to be the dominant socialist theory, partly because of its conceptual cogency and partly because it was embraced by the most powerful and influential social democratic parties affiliated with the Second (Socialist) International
• Positivism


  The belief that an understanding of both the natural and social worlds could be achieved through scientific knowledge
• Socialists like Saint-Simon and Marx developed political cosmologies that they thought could be grounded on a sound empirical basis
• Marxists, anarchists, and Fabianists were all influenced by the positivist tradition
• Laissez-faire policies


  Long favored by liberal governments as a way to respond effectively to the problems created by the periodic crises of capitalism, the second wave of industrialization, and the emergence of a mass society
• The failure of laissez-faire policies


  Caused many to see the state in a more favorable light
• Factors that favoured the rise of socialism

  • Increase in the number of workers in industrializing nations
  • Concentration of industries during the second industrial revolution
  • Rapid industrialization accelerating the movement from countryside to urban centers
  • Rise of literacy allowing workers to imbibe socialist ideas
  • Democratization of the ballot box bringing more workers into the political arena
• These factors created the basis for a "proletarian" mentality or consciousness, with workers joining clubs, trade unions, electing representatives, and subscribing to publications
• Marxism


  The most popular doctrine among working-class parties that began to emerge in the 1870s in industrialized countries
• In countries where industrialization had yet to be firmly established, Marxism was a minority tendency, with anarchism being a major force instead
• Engels' efforts to popularize Marx's theories

  Defending Marxian theories against critics and stressing that Marxism was a scientific worldview
• Engels' materialist conception of history

  Saw the march of socialism as an inexorable historical process that could be predicted by correctly reading the "objective laws" governing the evolution of both the natural world and society
• Engels' materialist conception of history became an article of faith in all the regimes that declared themselves to be Marxist in the twentieth century
• Anarchism


  One of the strongest non-Marxian currents in the socialist movement, united in opposition to Marxism due to their diametrically opposed views on the role of the state
• Anarchist views on the state

  Completely rejected the notion that the state could serve any positive function, believing the working classes would overturn capitalism by developing their own social institutions and engaging in economic struggle
• Anarchists opposed Marxism on the grounds that its communist principles were incompatible with the kind of libertarian society they envisaged