BIO 2

• Genetics


  The branch of biology focused on heredity, genes, genomes, and the cell cycle
• Genetics


  • Explores how traits are inherited from parents to offspring, based on inheritance principles
• Gregor Johann Mendel


  Known as the "Father of Modern Genetics" for establishing the basic principles of heredity
• Gregor Johann Mendel


  • Conducted experiments on garden peas (Pisum sativum) to propose laws of inheritance
• Law of Dominance


  Traits are controlled by pairs of factors (genes), where one gene can dominate over the other
• Law of Segregation


  Alleles segregate during gamete formation, and traits are independently passed on to offspring
• Incomplete Dominance


  Both alleles do not show a dominant trait, resulting in an intermediate phenotype
• Codominance


  Both alleles equally influence the phenotype without a dominant-recessive relationship
• Law of Independent Assortment

  Genes for different traits are inherited independently of each other
• Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance

  Genes are located on chromosomes, which exist in pairs. The segregation of chromosomes during meiosis explains the separation of gene pairs
• Sex Determination


  The presence of X and Y chromosomes determines the sex of an individual (XX for females, XY for males)
• Mutations


  Changes in DNA sequences causing variations in phenotype and genotype
• Mendelian Disorders


  • Sickle cell anemia
  • Phenylketonuria
• Central Dogma of Molecular Biology


  Proposed by Francis Crick in 1958, it describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to proteins
• Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

  DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into proteins
• Applications of Genetic Engineering

  • Medicine
  • Research
  • Industry
  • Agriculture
  • Other Areas
• Biotechnology


  A multidisciplinary field that integrates natural sciences and engineering to apply organisms and their components for products and services
• Biotechnology


  The term was first used by Károly Ereky in 1919, referring to the production of products from raw materials using living organisms
• Key Techniques in Biotechnology

  • Genetic Engineering
  • Tissue Culture
  • Fermentation
• Applications of Biotechnology


  • Development of essential products
  • Addressing environmental challenges
• Ethical and societal challenges include questions around genetic modification and intellectual property rights
• Ongoing debate and regulation surround biotechnology's use and application in various industries
• Transformation


  1. Selecting and cutting a piece of DNA with restriction enzymes, then ligating it into a vector with DNA ligase

  2. Inserting the vector into a host cell (e.g., E. coli) to transform it

  3. Use of selectable markers (e.g., antibiotic resistance) to identify recombinant molecules
• Non-Bacterial Transformation


  1. Similar to bacterial transformation but does not use bacteria as hosts

  2. Techniques include microinjection (direct DNA injection into the nucleus) and biolistics (bombarding cells with DNA-coated particles)
• Phage Introduction


  1. Using phages instead of bacteria for transformation

  2. Involves in vitro packaging of vectors and producing phage plaques containing recombinants
• Recombinant DNA


  Host cells express proteins from recombinant genes, requiring expression factors for significant protein production
• Recombinant DNA


  Recombinant DNA expression depends on gene signals (promoters, ribosome binding sites, terminators), which are species-specific
• Challenges with recombinant DNA include introns, premature termination, incorrect protein folding, and degradation
• Production in Eukaryotic Systems


  Generally takes place in yeast and filamentous fungi<|>Animal cells are complex to use due to their growth requirements and need for solid support surfaces<|>Some proteins are too complex to be produced in bacteria, necessitating the use of eukaryotic cells
• Importance of Recombinant DNA

  • Improved crops
  • Recombinant vaccines
  • Prevention and cure of genetic diseases
  • Production of clotting factors, insulin, and recombinant pharmaceuticals
  • Plants that produce their own insecticides
  • Germ line and somatic gene therapy
• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)


  A common laboratory technique to amplify specific DNA regions, making millions or billions of copies
• Applications of PCR


  • Analyzing or using target DNA regions
  • Amplifying genes associated with genetic disorders for sequencing or further experiments
  • Detecting bacterial or viral DNA in patient samples for diagnostic purposes