Stress

• Stress as defined by Selye (1936)

  
  

  Selye defined stress as the nonspecific response of the body to any demand. These demands can be psychological or physiological.
•  Types of stress (Selye, 1983)

  
  

  Selye, along with other researchers, have suggested that not all stress is detrimental to our health and that along with the negative distress, there is also eustress which is a positive stress response.
• Distress

  
  

  a negative stress response typically accompanied by physiological reactivity and negative emotions. Physiological changes triggered by distress can lead to significant health risks, particularly when combined with maladaptive ways of coping. Experiences that could potentially trigger distress include the death of a loved one, conflicts with a family member or financial difficulties.
• Eustress

  
  

  a positive stress response that motivates and enhances functioning. This form of stress is experienced when an individual feels stressed, yet prepared, to complete a task or deal with a situation. Graduating from high school, passing your driving test or starting a new job are examples of situations that may trigger eustress.
• Stressors


  Sources of stress from internal or external factors
• Types of stressors


  • Environmental stressors
  • Psychological stressors
  • Social stressors
  • Cultural stressors
• Environmental stressors


  • Arise from the conditions and physical surroundings of an individual
  • Examples include noise, extreme temperatures, pollution, natural disasters such as flooding, or manmade disasters including war
• Psychological stressors


  • Caused by emotional and cognitive factors
  • Examples include buying a house, pressure at work, and relationship changes
• Social stressors


  • Stem from relationships and interactions with society
  • Examples include pressure to be accepted by others and conflicts with family and friends
• Cultural stressors


  • Emerging from cultural identity, values, and cultural norms
  • Examples include discrimination due to cultural beliefs and practices
• Characteristics of stressors

  
  

  Nature- Stressors can be categorised as being environmental, psychological, social or cultural.

  Duration- Stressors can be short-term (acute) or long-term (chronic).

  Strength- The severity or intensity of stressors can range from being mild to severely distressing. The ability to cope with the stressor is affected by its severity.
• Models of stress


  Stressor → physiological reactions → stress as a response (alarm, resistance, exhaustion)
• Stress as a response – General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model (Selye, 1936, 1983)

  
  

  His theory was that stress was no simply an environmental stressor, but a set of processes that act as a response. Selye named the set of physical defences that react to harmful stimuli as the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), suggesting that stress was not simply an environmental stressor but a process that acts as a response. Physiologically, both breathing and heart rate increases in response to stress.
• Alarm stage


  • Shock Substage
  • Countershock Substage
• Shock Substage


  1. Initial response to perceived threat

  2. Resistance level falls below normal

  3. Body reacts as though injured

  4. Body temperature and blood pressure drop

  5. Muscles lose tone
• Countershock Substage


  1. Body rebounds from shock

  2. Sympathetic nervous system activates

  3. Releasing adrenaline and noradrenaline

  4. Increased heart rate and respiration

  5. Delivering glucose and oxygen to muscles

  6. Cortisol released by the HPA axis to increase resistance to the stressor
• The resistance stage:

  
  

  Body attempts to stabilize internal systems and combat the stressor.

  Symptoms of the alarm-reaction stage subside. Physiological arousal remains higher than normal, but lower than during alarm-reaction. Continued high cortisol levels suppress the immune system, increasing susceptibility to illness. Example: Frequent colds or slow-healing wounds.
• The resistance stage pt. 2

  
  

  Focus on managing the primary stressor may lead to neglect of other commitments. Reduced ability to handle additional stressors due to resource allocation. Example: A student focusing on exams may struggle with emerging conflicts with friends.
• The resistance stage pt. 3

  
  

  During the resistance stage, the student in the critical exam period will continue with the energetic approach to study they achieved in the countershock stage of alarm-reaction; however, after a period of time their bodily resources can become depleted, and this leads to exhaustion.
• The exhaustion stage

  
  

  If the original stressor is not defeated during the first two stages, we enter the exhaustion stage. Body's resources are drained and cortisol levels are depleted. Symptoms of exhaustion stage: Fatigue, Increased risk of mental health disorders (anxiety, depression), Increased risk of serious physical illnesses (diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure), Example: A VCE student entering the exhaustion stage may: Become sick and physically worn out. Experience depression or anxiety, disrupting their day-to-day functioning.
• Illness in resistance vs exhaustion (GAS)

  
  

  Many students often get confused between illness in the resistance and exhaustion stages of the GAS model. In a scenario-based question, keep an eye out for words like ‘cold’ or ‘flu’ – this usually indicates the resistance stage, particularly if the person is able to maintain their day-to-day functioning in some manner
• Stress as a stimulus suggestions:

  
  

  • They assume that life changes are stressful events and people will develop physical or mental illness beyond a general limit of adjustment to the event and that levels of adjustment required for life changes are similar among people.
  • This theory suggests that personality, life experiences and social support do not affect the impact of stress, nor the response adjustments made as a result.
• Stress as a stimulus


  Holmes and Rahe described stress as a significant change in life that requires a response or adjustment to be made. There is an assumption that life changes are stressful events, that individuals will develop a physical or mental illness beyond a general limit of adjustment to the stressful event and that levels of adjustment needed for life changes are similar among people.
• Application of the Social Readjustment Scale (Holmes and Rahe, 1967) to assess the impact of stressors on individual health and wellbeing

  • The Social Readjustment Scale assesses the amount of stress that has been experienced in the past year by an individual.
  • Comprising a list of forty-three common life events, respondents indicate which of these events they have experienced over the last year. A score of 10 to 100 Life Change Units (LCU) are allocated to each event illness can be calculated.
• Stress as a transaction – Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984)


  Individuals utilise their perception of stressful situation and their subjective past experiences to help them cope. Stress is not an event but a consequence of the dynamic process where primary and secondary appraisals work to assess the significance of a situation as well as evaluate ways to deal with it.
• In 1984, Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman introduced the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping.


  This model explains the cognitive appraisal process that influences responses to stressors. Stress is a subjective experience varying between individuals based on their interpretation of stressors and perceived coping ability. The model focuses on the interaction between a person and their external environment.
• How does stress arise?

  Stress arises from the imbalance between situational demands and the individual’s perceived ability to cope. Stress is experienced if perceived demands exceed perceived coping resources, even if the threat is not actual.
• What is coping?


  The process by which an individual manages the challenges they perceive as stressful along with the emotions associated with them.
• Selyes VS L & F


  Unlike Selye’s biological stress response model, Lazarus and Folkman emphasize cognitive appraisal of stressors as challenges or threats and the assessment of personal and social coping resources. Stress response depends on individual emotions and psychological factors. The psychological stress response is a two-way process involving: Environmental production of stressors. Individual’s subjective response (cognitive appraisal) about coping ability. Cognitive appraisal consists of two stages: primary and secondary appraisal.
• Flow of a stressor to a response

  Stressor → stress (individual versus their cognitive appraisal of event) → response (coping)
• Interactions between individual and environment


  Lazarus and Folkman described how individuals interact with their environment and that stress arises from the continual need to assess their current situation. The emphasis is on the relationship between the person, including their unique traits, and the characteristics of the environmental event taken place. Stress arises from the continual need to assess their current situation. The emphasis is on the relationship between the person, including their unique traits and the characteristics of the environment event taken place
• Role of cognitive appraisal – primary and secondary appraisal

  
  

  Individuals make judgements on the environmental event via cognitive appraisal - the cognitive abilities used to assess situations. Psychological stress emanates from the relationship between the individual and their cognitive appraisal of the environmental event, and whether or not the person-environment relationship is stressful depends upon this cognitive appraisal.
• Primary Appraisal

  
  

  Assess the significance or threat of the event. An initial assessment of the situation is conducted to determine wither the situation is a potential threat, challenge or may cause harm
• Primary appraisal processors

  1. Evaluate Severity:

  •       Irrelevant: No significance; will not cause stress.

  •       Benign-Positive: Neutral or positive; not stressful.

  •       Stressful: Significant and relevant; source of stress.

  2. Determine Nature of Stressor:

  •       Harm/Loss: Already caused harm or damage (e.g., injury causing pain).

  •       Threat: Potential future harm or damage (e.g., income loss due to injury).

  •       Challenge: Potential for growth or opportunity (e.g., chance to seek a less physically demanding job).
• Secondary Appraisal: 


  Assess coping ability for the stressor. Available resources and coping options are evaluated to see what can be used to manage the situation. Occurs alongside primary appraisal:
• Secondary appraisal processers

  1. Evaluate Resources:

  •       Internal Resources: Personal coping mechanisms.

  •       External Resources: Available support and help.

  2. Coping Assessment Outcomes:

  •       Positive Secondary Appraisal: Belief in adequate resources; results in no stress or eustress.

  •       Negative Secondary Appraisal: Belief that demands exceed resources; results in distress. Example: Speaking at a school assembly can be stressful for some, but those with adequate preparation and support may see it as a growth opportunity, while those with stage fright may feel distressed.
• Methods of coping – problem-focused, emotion-focused


  According to Lazarus and Folkman, there are two aspects to managing a stressful situation:
• Emotion-focused coping


  The goal is to manage emotional reactions to stress. Individuals will use emotion focused coping if they perceive they do not have the resources to effectively respond to, or cope with the stress.
• Problem-focused coping


  Addressing the root cause of the stress is the main focus. Problem-focused coping responses are typically utilised by individuals who believe they have the resources to deal with the stress. E.g., conducting research to find solutions to the issue or working on a plan to resolve it.
• Health related consequences of stress

  
  

  Managing emotions when stressed: Positive- taking ownership pf problem, seeking emotional or moral support. Negative- self-blame, anger, avoidance.