flowers

• Asexual Reproduction


  Produces genetically identical offspring to the parent, leading to individuals equally adapted to the habitat
• Sexual Reproduction

  Results in genetically diverse progeny, potentially leading to offspring better adapted than the parents
• Flower Parts

  • Carpel or Pistil
  • Petal
  • Sepal
  • Ovule
  • Receptacle
  • Stamen
• Carpel or Pistil

  • Composed of the stigma, style, and ovary
• Petal


  • Collectively called the corolla
• Sepal


  • Collectively called the calyx
• Ovule


  • Forms within the ovary
• Receptacle


  • The part of the flower stalk where the parts of the flower are attached
• Stamen


  • Composed of the filament and anther
• Floral Whorls

  • Sepals (Calyx)
  • Petals (Corolla)
  • Stamen (Androecium)
  • Carpel or Pistil (Gynoecium)
• Detailed comparisons between the gynoecium and androecium structures
• Types of Gynoecium

  • Monocarpous (Unicarpellate)
  • Apocarpous (Choricarpous)
  • Syncarpous
• Monocarpous Gynoecium


  Single carpel (e.g., avocado)
• Apocarpous Gynoecium


  Multiple distinct carpels (e.g., strawberry)
• Syncarpous Gynoecium

  Multiple fused carpels (e.g., tulip)
• Connation


  Fusion of floral parts from the same whorl
• Detailed descriptions of stamen arrangement and types of fusion (e.g., monadelphous, diadelphous)
• Floral Variations


  • Complete
  • Incomplete
  • Perfect
  • Imperfect
  • Radial
  • Bilateral
  • Polypetalous
  • Gamopetalous
  • Apetalous
• Ovary Position

  • Various types based on the position within the flower
• Insertion of Parts

  • Different attachment styles of floral parts
• Placentation Types

  • Various types of ovule attachment within the ovary
• Inflorescence


  • Types and parts of flower clusters
• Pollination

  Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma, leading to fertilization and seed production
• Pollinating Agents

  • Biotic
  • Abiotic
• Biotic agents account for 80% of pollination
• Abiotic agents account for 20% of pollination
• Coevolution


  The reciprocal evolutionary influence between two different species (e.g., plants and their pollinators)
• Coevolution

  • Long, curved beaks of honeycreepers and tubular flowers
  • Bright colors and scents evolved by plants to attract specific pollinators
  • Specialized body parts and behaviors of animals aiding in pollination
• Agents of Pollination

  • Wind (Anemophily)
  • Animals (Zoophily)
• Wind (Anemophily)


  • Used by gymnosperms and some flowering plants (e.g., grasses, trees). Flowers are usually small and grouped
• Animal Pollinators

  • Insects
  • Birds
  • Mammals
  • Other Animals
• Insect Pollinators

  • Bees
  • Wasps
  • Flies
  • Butterflies
  • Moths
• Bird Pollinators

  • Hummingbirds
  • Honeycreepers
• Mammal Pollinators

  • Bats
  • Mice
• Other Animal Pollinators

  • Some reptiles
  • Some amphibians
• Bees


  • Guided by sight and smell, attracted to yellow and blue colors, and ultraviolet light
• Butterflies and Moths

  • Attracted to red, orange, and tubular flowers. Moth-pollinated flowers are typically white or pale with strong odors
• Flies and Beetles

  • Attracted to flowers with strong odors resembling dung or rotten meat
• Birds

  • Prefer yellow or red flowers with little odor and larger quantities of nectar
• Mammals

  • Bats and mice are active at night, preferring white or inconspicuous flowers with strong scents