SCIE FINAL EXAM: UNIT 9

• Principle of Non-Contradiction


  A statement cannot be both true and false at the same time and in the same respect
• Principle of Sufficient Reason


  Everything must have a reason or cause for why it is the way it is
• Principle of the Identity of Indiscernibles


  If two things cannot be distinguished from each other, they are considered identical
• Key Polarities


  • Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up
  • Deduction vs. Induction
  • Analysis vs. Synthesis
  • Functional vs. Structural
• Top-Down Reasoning

  Starts with a broad system to explain component behavior
• Bottom-Up Reasoning


  Begins with individual components to understand the whole system
• Deduction


  Derives specific conclusions from general premises
• Induction

  Generalizes from specific observations to broader conclusions
• Analysis


  Breaks down a system into its components to understand them
• Synthesis


  Combines components to form a unified whole
• Functional Explanations


  Describes system properties based on the functions they fulfill
• Structural Explanations


  Explains system properties based on internal components and their arrangements
• Deductive Inference


  Derives specific conclusions from general premises
• Inductive Inference

  Generalizes from specific observations to broader conclusions
• Abductive Inference


  Infers the best explanation for a set of observations or evidence
• Logical Validity


  Refers to the formal structure of an argument
• Empirical Truth


  Involves the actual state of the world, as determined by observation or experiment
• Three Laws of Aristotelian Logic

  • Law of Identity
  • Law of Contradiction
  • Law of the Excluded Middle
• Law of Identity


  A thing is equal to itself
• Law of Contradiction


  No thing is equal to anything other than itself
• Law of the Excluded Middle


  No thing can have both a property and its opposite
• Contrary Form of a Proposition


  Two propositions cannot both be true (but both could be false)
• Subcontrary Form of a Proposition


  Two propositions cannot both be false (but both could be true)
• Contradictory Form of a Proposition

  Two propositions necessarily have opposite truth-values
• Subalternation Form of a Proposition


  If the universal form is true or false, it implies the truth or falsity of its particular form
• Four Types of Categorical Propositions

  • Universal Affirmative (A)
  • Universal Negative (E)
  • Particular Affirmative (I)
  • Particular Negative (O)
• Syllogism


  A form of deductive reasoning where a conclusion is drawn from two or more premises
• Major Premise


  The premise that contains the major term and the middle term
• Minor Premise


  The premise that contains the minor term and the middle term
• Subject Term


  The term that is the subject of the conclusion
• Predicate Term


  The term that is the predicate of the conclusion
• Middle Term


  The term that appears in both premises but not in the conclusion
• Quality of Statements


  Affirmative: Asserts inclusion<|>Negative: Asserts exclusion
• Quantity of Statements

  Universal: Applies to all members<|>Particular: Applies to some members
• Law of Identity and Essence


  Ensures that an entity's essence is stable and unchanging
• Principles of Reason


  Identity, Non-Contradiction, Excluded Middle
• Chapter 1 of What Science Is describes Edward Jenner’s discovery
• Law of Identity


  A thing is identical with itself; an entity is consistent with itself and does not change its fundamental nature
• Essence


  The core attributes necessary for an entity to be what it is
• The law of identity ensures that the essence of a thing is stable and unchanging