bio chemistry

• Carbohydrates:

  • Monosaccharides: The simplest form of carbohydrates (e.g., glucose, fructose). They have the general formula Cn(H2O)nC_n(H_2O)_nCn​(H2​O)n​, typically ranging from three to seven carbon atoms.
  • Disaccharides: Formed by two monosaccharides linked by a glycosidic bond (e.g., sucrose, lactose).
  • Polysaccharides: Long chains of monosaccharide units (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).
• Carbohydrates:

  Functions:

  • Energy Source: Carbohydrates are the primary source of energy for living organisms.
  • Energy Storage: Starch (in plants) and glycogen (in animals) are storage forms of glucose.
  • Structural Support: Cellulose in plant cell walls provides structural integrity
• Lipids:

  General Structure:

  • Fatty Acids: Long hydrocarbon chains with a carboxyl group at one end. They can be saturated (no double bonds) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds).
  • Triglycerides: Composed of three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule.
  • Phospholipids: Contain two fatty acids, a glycerol, and a phosphate group. They form the lipid bilayer in cell membranes.
  • Steroids: Four fused hydrocarbon rings, with various functional groups attached (e.g., cholesterol).
• Lipids:

  Functions:

  • Energy Storage: Lipids store more energy per gram than carbohydrates.
  • Cell Membrane Structure: Phospholipids form the bilayer that makes up cell membranes.
  • Insulation and Protection: Lipids provide insulation and protect organs.
  • Signaling: Steroids like hormones play key roles in signaling pathways.
• Proteins:

  General Structure:

  • Amino Acids: The building blocks of proteins, each containing an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a side chain (R group).
  • Polypeptides: Chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
  • Protein Structure: Organized into four levels:
  • Primary Structure: Sequence of amino acids.
  • Secondary Structure: Alpha helices and beta sheets formed by hydrogen bonds.
  • Tertiary Structure: 3D folding due to interactions between R groups.
  • Quaternary Structure: Assembly of multiple polypeptides into a functional protein.
• Proteins:

  Functions:

  • Enzymatic Activity: Proteins act as enzymes to catalyze biochemical reactions.
  • Structural Support: Proteins like collagen provide structural support.
  • Transport: Proteins like hemoglobin transport molecules.
  • Signaling: Proteins function as receptors and hormones
• Enzymes:

  General Structure:

  • Proteins: Enzymes are primarily proteins, with a specific three-dimensional structure necessary for their function.
  • Active Site: A region on the enzyme where the substrate binds and the reaction takes place.
  • Cofactors/Coenzymes: Some enzymes require non-protein molecules (e.g., vitamins, metal ions) to be active.
• Enzymes:

  Functions:

  • Catalysis: Enzymes lower the activation energy of biochemical reactions, increasing the reaction rate.
  • Specificity: Enzymes are highly specific, typically catalyzing only one type of reaction for a particular substrate.
  • Regulation: Enzymatic activity can be regulated by factors such as temperature, pH, and inhibitors or activators.
• Nucleic Acids:

  General Structure:

  • Nucleotides: The building blocks of nucleic acids, each consisting of a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine/uracil), a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA), and a phosphate group.
  • DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): A double helix structure with complementary base pairing (A-T, G-C).
  • RNA (Ribonucleic Acid): Typically single-stranded, with uracil replacing thymine (A-U, G-C).
• Nucleic Acids:

  Functions:

  • Genetic Information Storage: DNA stores genetic information used for the development, functioning, and reproduction of organisms.
  • Protein Synthesis: RNA is involved in translating genetic information into proteins.
  • Regulation: Some RNA molecules have regulatory functions, such as mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA in protein synthesis.
• Vitamins:

  General Structure:

  • Organic Compounds: Vitamins are organic molecules that are required in small amounts for normal metabolic processes. They can be classified as fat-soluble (e.g., A, D, E, K) or water-soluble (e.g., C, B-complex).
  • Diverse Structures: Vitamins have varied structures depending on their type, ranging from simple molecules like ascorbic acid (vitamin C) to more complex molecules like vitamin B12.
• Vitamins:

  Functions:

  • Coenzymes: Many vitamins function as coenzymes or precursors to coenzymes, assisting in enzyme function (e.g., B vitamins).
  • Antioxidants: Some vitamins, like vitamin C and E, act as antioxidants, protecting cells from damage.
  • Regulation of Metabolism: Vitamins are involved in regulating various metabolic pathways and maintaining homeostasis.
• What is the average percentage of water in plants?

  75.0%
• What is the average percentage of carbohydrates in animals?

  0.8%
• What is the average percentage of proteins in humans?

  18.0%
• What are the average percentages of mineral elements in plants, animals, and humans?

  • Plants: 2.0%
  • Animals: 4.0%
  • Humans: 1.0%
• What are the average percentages of lipids in plants, animals, and humans?

  • Plants: 0.1%
  • Animals: 13.0%
  • Humans: 10.0%
• What are the average percentages of nucleic acids in plants, animals, and humans?

  • Plants: 0.9%
  • Animals: 0.2%
  • Humans: 1.0%
• What are examples of organic compounds?

  • Carbohydrates
  • Lipids
  • Proteins
  • Hormones
  • Nucleic acids
  • Vitamins
• What are examples of inorganic compounds?

  • Nitrogen (N₂)
  • Oxygen (O₂)
  • Water (H₂O)
  • Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
  • Sodium chloride (NaCl)
• What is the role of water in living organisms?

  Water acts as a solvent, medium for chemical reactions, and helps in temperature control.
• What are macro mineral elements needed by plants and animals?

  Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, and iron.
• How does nitrogen enter plant roots?

  Nitrogen enters roots as nitrate from soil, humus, and fertilizers.
• What are the consequences of using too much inorganic fertilizer?

  It can harm soil fertility and lead to leaching into water bodies.
• What is eutrophication and its effects?

  • Eutrophication occurs when nitrogen-rich compounds run off into water bodies.
  • It causes lack of oxygen, leading to death of aquatic life.
  • Water becomes cloudy and discolored.
• What are the three types of carbohydrates?

  Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
• What is the primary function of carbohydrates in living organisms?

  To store and provide energy, and to provide structure.
• What are the tests for glucose and their results?

  • Fehling's solution: Positive - green, yellow, orange, red; Negative - blue.
  • Benedict's solution: Positive - brick-red; Negative - blue.
• What are the functions of lipids in living organisms?

  Provide structure, absorb nutrients, store energy, and protect organs.
• What distinguishes saturated lipids from unsaturated lipids?

  Saturated lipids are solid and have single bonds; unsaturated lipids are liquid and have double bonds.
• What is cholesterol and its role in the body?

  Cholesterol is a lipid that digests fats and makes vitamin D and hormones.
• What are the types of cholesterol and their functions?

  LDL (bad), HDL (good), and triglycerides; HDL removes cholesterol from arteries.
• How does high LDL cholesterol affect health?

  It builds up plaque in arteries, increasing the risk of heart attack or stroke.
• What factors can lead to high triglyceride levels?

  Being overweight, high-carbohydrate diet, lack of exercise, smoking, and excessive alcohol consumption.
• How is total cholesterol count determined?

  Through a blood test measuring HDL, LDL, and triglycerides.
• At what age is n more likely to get fat deposits?

  Younger age
• What happens to an artery when there is a tear in the wall and fatty deposits build up?

  • Fatty deposit builds up
  • Artery gets blocked
  • Blood clot may form
• Why is high cholesterol dangerous to health?

  It can lead to heart disease and stroke
• What does HDL cholesterol do?

  It carries cholesterol away from arteries to the liver for excretion
• How does HDL cholesterol affect plaque build-up?

  It slows down plaque build-up