Memory

• What is eyewitness testimony?

  Evidence provided by individuals recalling an event that they have witnessed.
• What does the term 'misleading information' refer to?

  Using words to wrongly imply that something has happened, leading to false testimony.
• What is an example of misleading information?


  Using leading questions or participating in post-event discussions.
• What is a leading question?

  A question that suggests a particular answer or implies something has happened.
• What was the aim of Loftus and Palmer's first experiment?

  To investigate whether the phrasing of a question can affect participants' memory of an event.
• What method did Loftus and Palmer use in their experiment?

  A lab experiment.
• How many American students participated in Loftus and Palmer's experiment?

  45 American students.
• What were participants shown in Loftus and Palmer's experiment?


  A video of a car crash.
• What were the five critical questions used in Loftus and Palmer's experiment?


  About how fast were the cars travelling when they smashed, hit, collided, bumped, or contacted each other?
• What did Loftus and Palmer find regarding the speed estimates based on the wording of the question?

  Participants guessed a higher speed when they heard 'smashed' compared to 'contacted'.
• What does the response-bias explanation suggest about the wording of questions?

  The wording influences how participants decide to answer, but does not affect their actual memory.
• What does the substitution explanation suggest about misleading questions?

  The wording of the question actually changes the participant's memory of the event.
• What was demonstrated in Loftus and Palmer's second experiment?

  Participants who heard 'smashed' were more likely to report seeing broken glass later, even though there was none.
• What are the practical applications of research on misleading information in eyewitness testimony?

  • Helps the legal system ensure accurate recall by avoiding leading questions.
  • Important for improving eyewitness testimony reliability.
• What is the cognitive interview technique?

  • A technique used by police officers.
  • Does not allow leading questions.
  • Aims to improve the accuracy of statements recalled.
• What is a limitation of the research into misleading information regarding ecological validity?

  The research lacks ecological validity as it was conducted in a lab with an artificial task, which may not reflect real-life situations.
• Why is it difficult to generalize the findings of Loftus and Palmer's research to real-life situations?

  There is a lack of emotion in the lab setting, making it difficult to reflect how eyewitnesses would respond in real life.
• What is a strength of the research into misleading information regarding control over variables?

  The research has high control over extraneous variables, allowing for a cause-and-effect relationship to be established.
• What are the independent and dependent variables in Loftus and Palmer's research?

  IV: Leading questions; DV: Speed estimates.