Week 3

• What is the definition of anatomy?

  Anatomy is the branch of science that studies the structure of humans, animals, and plants.
• How is anatomy primarily revealed?

  Anatomy is primarily revealed by dissection and separation of body parts.
• What does physiology study?

  Physiology studies the functions of living organisms and their parts.
• What is the focus of physiology?

  Physiology focuses on chemical, physical, and electrical processes in the body of organisms.
• Why is understanding anatomy critical in studying physiology?

  Understanding anatomy is critical because it provides insights into the functions of that particular living organism.
• What is the hierarchy of increasing complexity in biological organization?

  1. Cells
  2. Tissues
  3. Organs
  4. Organ systems
  5. Organism
• What are the main components and functions of the digestive system?

  • Main components: Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, anus
  • Main functions: Food processing (ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination)
• What are the main components and functions of the circulatory system?

  • Main components: Heart, blood vessels, blood
  • Main functions: Internal distribution of materials

  
• What are the main components and functions of the respiratory system?

  • Main components: Lungs, trachea, other breathing tubes
  • Main functions: Gas exchange (uptake of oxygen; disposal of carbon dioxide)
• What are the main components and functions of the immune and lymphatic system?

  • Main components: Bone marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymph vessels
  • Main functions: Body defense (fighting infections and virally induced cancers); fluid distribution (lymphatic system only)

  
• What are the main components and functions of the excretory system?

  • Main components: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
  • Main functions: Disposal of metabolic wastes; regulation of osmotic balance of blood

  
• What are the main components and functions of the endocrine system?

  • Main components: Pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal, and other hormone-secreting glands
  • Main functions: Coordination of body activities (such as digestion and metabolism)

  
• What are the main components and functions of the reproductive system?

  • Main components: Ovaries or testes and associated organs
  • Main functions: Gamete production; promotion of fertilization; support of developing embryo
• What are the main components and functions of the nervous system?

  • Main components: Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs
  • Main functions: Coordination of body activities; detection of stimuli and formulation of responses to them
• What are the main components and functions of the integumentary system?

  • Main components: Skin and its derivatives (such as hair, claws, sweat glands)
  • Main functions: Protection against mechanical injury, infection, dehydration; thermoregulation
• What are the main components and functions of the skeletal system?

  • Main components: Skeleton (bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage)
  • Main functions: Body support, protection of internal organs, movement
• What are the main components and functions of the muscular system?

  • Main components: Skeletal muscles
  • Main functions: Locomotion and other movement
• How do anatomy and physiology relate to each other?

  • Anatomy focuses on structure
  • Physiology focuses on function
  • The two are inseparable
• What is homeostasis?

  Homeostasis is the body's effort to regulate and maintain internal physical conditions within narrow limits.

  
• What are the two methods of regulation in physiology?

  1. Negative feedback loops
  2. Positive feedback loops
• How does a negative feedback loop function?

  A negative feedback loop detects a deviation from a set point, sends information to an integrator, which responds through an effector that has an opposite or diminishing effect on the originating variable.
• Can you give an example of a negative feedback loop?


  Examples include sweating when feeling hot and shivering when feeling cold.
• How does a positive feedback loop function?


  A positive feedback loop initiates an event or stimulus that causes a change in a variable, further increasing the output.
• What is the role of the endocrine and nervous systems in coordination and control?

  • Both systems coordinate and control responses to stimuli
  • Enable information flow among cells, tissues, and organs

  
• What are hormones?

  Hormones are chemical substances secreted by endocrine glands that travel in the bloodstream to specific target tissues.

  
• What is the lock and key mechanism in hormone action?

  The lock and key mechanism refers to hormones having a very specific 3-D shape that fits into receptor sites, which are proteins with a specific negative 3-D shape to the hormone.
• What are the categories of hormones?

  1. Amine: amino acid derivative
  2. Peptide: generally <100 amino acids
  3. Steroids: lipid four-ringed structure that starts with cholesterol
• What is the difference between nerve impulses and hormones in terms of response time?

  Nerve impulses are adapted for directing immediate and rapid responses to the environment, while hormones coordinate gradual changes affecting the entire body.

  
• What are the mechanisms of hormone secretion?

  1. Humoral trigger
  2. Neuronal trigger
  3. Hormonal trigger
• What is a simple endocrine pathway?

  A simple endocrine pathway involves endocrine cells responding directly to internal or environmental stimuli by secreting a specific hormone.

  
• Can you describe the process of secretin signaling?

  Secretin signaling involves low pH in the duodenum stimulating S cells to release secretin, which travels through the bloodstream to pancreatic cells, resulting in bicarbonate release.

  
• What is the role of the pituitary gland?

  • The pituitary gland is actually two glands fused together.
  • The anterior pituitary is regulated through vessels connected to the hypothalamus.
  • The posterior pituitary is regulated through nerves connected to the hypothalamus.

  
• What is a simple neuroendocrine pathway?

  A simple neuroendocrine pathway involves a stimulus received by a sensory neuron that stimulates a neurosecretory cell, triggering hormone secretion.

  
• Can you describe the process of oxytocin signaling?

  Oxytocin signaling involves suckling as a stimulus, sensory neurons sending nerve impulses to a neurosecretory cell, triggering the release of oxytocin, which circulates to smooth muscles in mammary glands, resulting in milk release.

  
• What are the functions of the anterior pituitary pathways?


  • Functions range from reproduction and growth to metabolism and stress responses.
• How do hormones interact with target cells?

  Hormones can’t pass through the cell membrane, so they bind to cell-surface receptors, triggering activity at the plasma membrane that results in a cellular response.

  
• What is the significance of hormone solubility?

  • Hormones that cannot pass through the membrane bind to cell-surface receptors.
  • Lipid-soluble hormones can reach the cytosol where their receptors are located.

  
• What are the multiple effects of hormones?

  • Many hormones elicit more than one response in the body.
  • Different signal transduction pathways can lead to varied responses.

  
• What is feedback control in physiology?

  Feedback control involves regulators that use internal mechanisms to control internal changes in response to external fluctuations, while conformers allow internal conditions to change with external changes.
• What are the types of thermoregulation?

  1. Ectotherms: generate body heat metabolically but cannot maintain constant internal temperature.
  2. Endotherms: generate body heat metabolically and maintain a constant internal temperature.