Social class, gender and ethnicity

• Name three sociologists who studied pupil subcultures.

  Rick Hargreaves, Mac and Ghaill
• What does the term 'meritocracy' imply in the context of education?

  It implies that success is based on individual talent and effort.
• What evidence suggests that Britain is not meritocratic?

  The link between educational qualifications and pay is relatively weak.
• According to most sociologists, what is the reality of equality of opportunity in education?


  There is no real equality of opportunity in education.
• What did Perry & Francis (2010) indicate about social class and educational achievement in the UK?

  Social class is the strongest predictor of educational achievement.
• What did Waldfogel & Washbrook (2010) find regarding educational achievement by age 3?


  Many children from less privileged backgrounds were already a year behind their peers.
• What are some challenges faced by working class children when starting school?

  They are more likely to start school unable to read and be placed in lower sets.
• How do middle class children generally perform in exams compared to working class children?

  Middle class children do better in all exams.
• What are the differences in educational achievement between free school meal (FSM) pupils and non-FSM pupils?

  • Only 29% of FSM pupils achieved grade 5 or above in English and Maths.
  • 57% of non-FSM pupils achieved the same.
  • 26% of FSM pupils were entered for the English Baccalaureate compared to 43% of non-FSM pupils.
• Who is eligible for Free School Meals (FSM) in 2022?


  Parents in households with a gross annual income of no more than £16,190.
• What does the statistic about FSM pupils achieving grades indicate about income and educational achievement?

  Non-FSM pupils from higher income households are twice as likely to pass both English and Maths.
• What is a limitation of using household income as a proxy for social class?


  Income alone does not accurately reflect a child's social class background.
• What are some material factors that can affect educational achievement?


  Low wages, diet, health, and housing can all have direct effects on student attainment.
• What are the external factors that contribute to educational differences between social classes?

  • Material explanations: social and economic conditions outside the school.
  • Cultural explanations: values, attitudes, and lifestyles developed outside school.
• What is material deprivation?

  It is the inability to afford basic resources and services.
• How does material deprivation correlate with educational achievement?

  Material deprivation generally has negative effects on educational achievement.
• What did Cooper & Stewart (2013) find regarding poorer children?

  They have worse cognitive, social-behavioral, and health outcomes.
• What are some ways material deprivation can impact educational achievement according to Gibson & Asthana (1999)?

  1. Poor quality housing leading to health issues.
  2. Worse diets affecting concentration.
  3. Inability to afford hidden costs of education.
  4. Lack of appropriate study space.
  5. Greater financial burden of tuition fees.
  6. Limited access to pre-school facilities.
  7. Conflicts between part-time jobs and study.
• What is the relationship between household income and educational performance according to Gibson & Asthana?

  There is a correlation between low household income and poor educational performance.
• What did the Institute of Health Inequalities estimate in 2022 regarding households with children under five?

  Many are in fuel poverty and struggling to pay gas and electric bills.
• What impact does living in poor housing have on children's education?

  It can lead to higher chances of sickness and more absences from school.
• What are the classic pieces of sociological research that explored material deprivation?

  1. Stephen Ball (2005) on marketisation.
  2. Conterat et al. (2000) on university access.
  3. Feinstein (2000) on income and cognitive development.
• What does the introduction of marketisation mean for educational access?

  It limits access to state schools for those who cannot afford it.
• What does the Sutton Trust document regarding material deprivation?

  It documents the continued impact of material deprivation on education.
• How does the current educational system reflect on meritocracy?

  The education system is not meritocratic due to lack of equality of circumstance.
• What is the significance of the achievement gap between the lowest and highest income households?

  It indicates huge social class differences in educational achievement.
• What is a limitation of the Free School Meals (FSM) statistics?

  They only account for the poorest 20% and do not consider other income factors.
• What is the impact of neoliberal policies on educational achievement?

  They may disguise the truth about social class differences in educational outcomes.
• What did Conterat et al. (2000) and Forsyth and Furlong (2001) find regarding working class children and university?

  They found that the introduction of tuition fees in higher education puts working class children off going to university due to fear of debt.
• How does income relate to cognitive development in children according to Fenstein (2000)?

  Income is related to low cognitive development among children as young as three years old.
• What contemporary evidence is provided by organizations like the Sutton Trust regarding education?

  There is evidence documenting the continued impact of material deprivation on education.
• What did the Institute of Health Inequalities estimate in 2022 about households with children under five?

  They estimated that 1.3 million households with children under five are in fuel poverty.
• What are the consequences of living in fuel poverty for children?

  Children may struggle to do homework as they are likely to crowd into one or two heated rooms.
• What impact does poor housing have on school attendance in the UK?

  School days are lost due to illnesses related to damp and mold, with the UK having the highest rate of such issues among member states.
• What did the National Education Union find in their 2019 survey regarding poverty and children's learning?

  Over 75% of teachers reported that students experienced hunger and fatigue, affecting their concentration.
• What percentage of teachers reported that students missed schoolwork due to poverty?

  Over 50% reported that students had been ill and missed schoolwork due to poverty.
• How has the pandemic affected poor students according to the survey conducted by the National Education Union?

  Nearly all schools reported that the pandemic harmed poor students more than others.
• What are the hidden costs associated with sending a child to a state school?

  The hidden costs are estimated to be around £1614 per year for basic school-related expenses.
• How does the school catchment area impact educational resources according to Smith and Noble (1994)?

  Schools in affluent areas are better equipped, while 90% of failing schools are in deprived areas.
• What has been the impact of rising gas and electricity prices on households in 2022 and 2023?

  Many households have been pushed into relative poverty, leading to material deprivation among children.