summary

• What year did the French Revolution begin?

  1789
• Who were the three estates in France before the revolution?

  1. First Estate: Clergy (0.5% of population, 10% of land, exempt from taxes)
  2. Second Estate: Nobility (1.5% of population, 25% of land, exempt from taxes)
  3. Third Estate: Commoners (98% of population, 65% of land, paid all taxes)
• What was the relationship between the three estates prior to the French Revolution?

  The First and Second Estates exploited the Third Estate by imposing heavy taxes while paying little or none themselves.
• How did the relationship between the estates change after the French Revolution?

  After the revolution, the First and Second Estates had to lower taxes on the Third Estate due to revolts, reducing hatred but angering the higher classes.
• What were the main phases of the French Revolution?

  1. Moderate Stage (1789-1792)
  2. Radical Stage (1793-1794)
  3. The Directory (1795-1799)
  4. The Age of Napoleon (1800-1815)
• What significant event occurred in 1791 during the French Revolution?

  The Constitution of France was established, declaring the title "King of the French."
• What was the impact of the 1791 Constitution on the Church?

  It limited the authority of the Roman Catholic Church and required clergy to take an oath of loyalty to the Civil Constitution.
• What were the two main political groups that emerged during the Moderate Stage of the French Revolution?

  The Girondins (moderate) and the Montagnards (radical).
• What characterized the Radical Stage of the French Revolution (1793-1794)?


  • State of siege and Reign of Terror
  • 16,594 official death sentences without defense rights
  • Maximilien Robespierre's speech on the necessity of terror
• What was the Coup de Brumaire?

  The Coup de Brumaire was a coup that occurred on November 9-10, 1799, leading to the establishment of the Directory.
• What were the main features of the Age of Napoleon (1800-1815)?

  • Plebiscitary dictatorship with universal male suffrage
  • Control over legislative chambers and public administration
  • Public education and literacy initiatives
  • Napoleonic wars and the Treaty of Amiens
• What was the outcome of the invasion of Russia in 1812?

  Only 20,000 soldiers survived out of 375,000.
• What role did the French provincial parlements play?

  • They served as a source of resistance against absolutist rule.
  • They were provincial courts of appeal challenging the King's divine rights.
  • Louis XIV and Louis XV attempted to weaken their power.
• How did Louis XVI respond to rising public pressure regarding the parlements?

  He restored the right to appeal to the parlements.
• Was the French Revolution initially an anti-royalist movement?

  No, it became anti-royalist as the Third Estate realized the disparity in living conditions compared to King Louis XVI.
• What event marked the official beginning of the French Revolution?

  The storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789.
• What were the main legacies of the French Revolution?

  Economics:

  • Private land ownership from sale of Church lands
  • Liberalization of the market

  
  

  Politics:

  1. Popular sovereignty
  2. Creation of a public sphere
  3. Secularization
  4. Nationalism
• What are the three theories explaining the causes of the French Revolution?

  1. Marxist interpretation: class competition between bourgeoisie and nobility.
  2. Victory of Enlightenment ideas: popular sovereignty and rights.
  3. Social and Ideational theories: changing income and wealth patterns linked to power and governance.
• Why is the idea of growing bourgeois class consciousness invalidated by historical evidence?

  There was no clear distinction between feudal aristocracy and capitalist bourgeoisie, and the revolution slowed industrialization.
• Should we understand the French Revolution as an attempt to dismantle the Three Estates system?

  Yes, it was linked to the rise of a mercantile class and the spread of meritocracy and Enlightenment ideas.
• What was Edmund Burke's central critique of the French Revolution?

  He believed it was a radical divorce from the past and that rights are contextually based on history.
• What were the main aims of the Congress of Vienna?

  1. Restore international peace and create equilibrium among powers.
  2. Restore domestic stability through family ties across Europe.
• Why was France not punished more severely after the Napoleonic wars?

  Fear that a punished France would seek revenge and strengthen another power.
• Why are the architects of the Congress of Vienna considered conservatives and not reactionaries?

  They aimed to preserve monarchy and stability without radical changes.
• What was the main political impact of the 1848 revolutions?

  • Consolidation of parliaments' roles
  • Abolition of serfdom
  • Increased political participation
  • Gradual extension of voting rights
• What were the main patterns of suffrage extension in 19th century Europe?

  1. Revolutionary threat hypothesis: suffrage extensions as a response to crises.
  2. Political competition hypothesis: elite competition driving democratization.
• Why is the suffrage system under Bismarck characterized as "electoral authoritarianism"?

  It introduced universal male suffrage for conservative reasons to strengthen the countryside's voice.
• What factors contributed to the "Concert of Europe" politics?

  • Regular meetings of great powers post-Congress of Vienna.
  • Recognition of international boundaries and state sovereignty.
  • Regulation of war as an instrument for peace.
• How did the weakening of the Ottoman Empire heighten tensions among the Great European Powers?

  The Crimean War involved Britain, France, and Turkey against Russia, disrupting the balance of power.
• What were the main causes for the breakdown of the Congress system?

  • Defensive system aimed at preventing dominance.
  • European powers divided over mutual support protocols.
  • Rise of nationalism and unification movements.
• Who was Otto von Bismarck?

  Otto von Bismarck was a Prussian conservative known for introducing universal male suffrage.
• How did the system of international relations change throughout the 19th century?

  • Shift from the Congress of Vienna's stability to Bismarck's complex alliances.
  • Rise of the German Empire leading to WWI.
• What are the differences between the models of European concert and balancing antagonisms in international relations?

  1. European concert: focused on peace and conflict management.
  2. Balancing antagonisms: characterized by distrust and secret alliances.
• Why does nationalism have a negative connotation in Europe?

  • Historical context of nationalist movements seen as subversive.
  • Morally ambivalent nature of nationalism.
• What was the Congress of Vienna's main contribution to peace and war concepts in 1815?

  It radically altered conceptions of peace and war and ensured 40 years of peace.
• What was the main limitation of the Congress of Vienna's approach?

  It focused on conflict management rather than prevention.
• What did Bismarck's return in 1871 signify for international relations?

  It marked the return of balancing alliances and antagonisms.
• What characterized the failed international relations system after Bismarck?

  It was a complex web of secret alliances, counter-alliances, and distrust.
• What was the power vacuum in Europe after Bismarck's dismissal in 1890?

  The only credible "manager" of Europe was a detached, disinterested Britain.
• How did the rise of the German Empire affect the balance of power in Europe?

  It disturbed the balance of power and brought colonial conflicts back to Europe.