PRMLS2 (prelims to finals)

• What are the four aspects of a person in health and wellbeing?

  Physically, Emotionally, Mentally, Spiritually
• What is the difference between genetic and acquired causes of disease?

  Genetic causes are due to mutations in DNA, while acquired causes stem from environmental factors.
• What are the four types of acquired causes of diseases?

  • Physical
  • Chemical
  • Nutritional
  • Infectious
• What are the physical causes of diseases?

  Causes include mechanical trauma, heat and cold, electrical discharges, changes in pressure, and radiation.
• How do chemical causes of diseases affect health?

  They result in adverse health effects immediately upon contact or after prolonged exposure to toxic or irritant chemicals.
• What is the impact of nutritional causes on health?


  Too much or too little nutrients can be detrimental, with over-nourishment and undernourishment being common examples.
• What defines infectious causes of diseases?

  Infectious causes must enter the body to survive and cause harm.
• What are the four types of infectious causes of diseases?

  • Bacterial
  • Parasitic
  • Fungal or Mycotic
  • Viral
• What are two common bacterial causes of disease?

  Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli
• What types of diseases do parasitic infections include?

  They include intestinal and extra-intestinal diseases.
• What characterizes fungal or mycotic diseases?

  Most fungal diseases are mild but can affect vital organs if they reach deeper into the body.
• How are viral infections defined?

  Viral infections are caused by infectious agents that are not considered living organisms and consist of nucleic acids that replicate.
• What is phenotypic diagnosis?


  • Uses characteristics of the specimen to identify the etiology of the disease.
  • Not specific and requires multiple pieces of evidence.
• What is genotypic diagnosis?


  • Uses molecular methods to identify specific DNA of a specimen.
  • Most accurate and provides speed in identification.
• Why is specimen collection important in diagnosis?

  Specimen collection is crucial for accurate diagnosis of diseases.
• What is a microorganism?


  A microorganism is a very small organism that can only be seen through a microscope.
• What are the four types of microorganisms?

  • Bacteria
  • Parasites
  • Fungi (yeasts and molds)
  • Virus
• Who is Anton van Leeuwenhoek?

  He came up with the 200x microscope and described tiny living organisms called animalcules.
• What did Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis observe regarding puerperal fever?

  He observed high mortality rates in pregnant women and implemented handwashing to reduce fatalities.
• What is Joseph Lister known for?

  He pioneered antiseptic surgery using carbolic acid to sterilize instruments and clean wounds.
• What did Robert Koch verify with his postulates?

  He verified the germ theory of disease by establishing standards relating specific organisms to specific diseases.
• What is Louis Pasteur known for in bacteriology?

  He is considered the "father of bacteriology" and explained fermentation and spoilage caused by bacteria.
• What is the germ theory of disease proposed by Pasteur?

  • Specific pathogens are responsible for specific infectious diseases.
• What are the types of symbiotic relationships between microbes and hosts?

  • Mutualism: both benefit
  • Parasitism: one benefits, the other is harmed
  • Commensalism: one benefits, the other is unharmed
  • Mutual antagonism: normal flora prevents growth of other organisms
• What is an opportunist in the context of pathogens?

  An opportunist is a potential pathogen that becomes pathogenic when the host is immunocompromised.
• What is the epidemiologic triangle?


  • A model that explains the interaction between the agent, host, and environment in disease transmission.
• What are the types of transmission of diseases?

  • Mechanical
  • Physical contact
  • Droplet
  • Direct transmission
  • Percutaneous
  • Trauma
  • Indirect transmission
  • Vehicle/environment
  • Vectors
• What is biological transmission?


  It is when the etiologic agent undergoes biological change as it is transferred from one reservoir to a new host.
• What are the stages of malarial infection?

  • Ring
  • Trophozoites
  • Schizont
  • Gametocyte
• What are the periods of disease growth?

  • Prodromal/Incubation: interval from infection to first signs
  • Clinical/Illness Period: shows signs and symptoms
  • Period of Decline/Defervescence: critical phase
  • Convalescence: regaining strength
• What are the cardinal signs of inflammation?

  • Rubor
  • Calor
  • Dolor
  • Tumor
  • Functio Laesa
• What is a nosocomial infection?


  It is an infection acquired while in the hospital.
• How are infections classified according to severity?

  • Acute: short time, rapid and severe
  • Chronic: long time, milder and long-lasting
  • Latent: inactive but can become active
• How are infections classified according to host involvement?

  • Localized: occurring in a small area
  • Systemic: wide area or throughout the body
  • Focal: from a specific point spreading to other parts
• How are infections classified according to occurrence?

  • Sporadic: occasional
  • Endemic: constantly present in a small number of the population
  • Epidemic: occurs for a short time but affects a great number of the population
• What is a communicable disease?


  An illness due to the transmission of an etiologic agent or reservoir to a susceptible host.
• What is a contagious disease?


  An illness due to direct transmission of the etiologic agent from the reservoir to a susceptible host.
• What are the methods to break the chain of infection?

  • Kill the pathogen: handwashing, disinfecting, vaccines
  • Make the host resistant: being healthy, immunization
  • Prevent contact: use PPE
  • Prevent escape: cover mouth when sneezing
  • Block portal of entry: use masks, cover wounds
  • Prevent transmission: control carriers of vectors
• What are the types of sterilization methods?

  • Physical sterilization: temperature, pressure, mechanical equipment (e.g., autoclave at 121°C at 15 psi for 15 mins)
  • Chemical sterilization: use of chemical compounds
• What are the chemical agents used in sterilization?

  • Alcohols: denature proteins, disrupt lipid structure
  • Detergents and soaps: interact with lipid in cell membrane
  • Phenols: original disinfectant of Lister, denature proteins
  • Halogens: chlorine and iodine (effective skin antiseptic)
  • Heavy metals: inhibit enzymatic activities
  • Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂): oxidizes microbes
  • Formaldehyde: denatures proteins, bactericide, fungicide
  • Glutaraldehyde: more effective than formaldehyde, less toxic
  • Ethylene oxide: sterilizes heat-sensitive equipment
  • Acids and alkalis: denature proteins, weak acids as food preservatives