later classical

• What period is ‘later classical‘ liberalism?

  The Late 18th and 19th centuries
• What was the major event that brought sweeping societal, political and economic changes?

  Industrial Revolution
• What did the Industrial Revolution do?

  Transformed economies and societies, creating unprecedented levels of wealth but also creating significant social and economic inequalities
• What did the industrial revolution era see?

  The rise of the working class, urbanisation and the expansion of capitalist economies, which raised issues related to workers’ rights, economic disparities and the role of government in regulating industry
• What movement saw the expansion of democratic ideals and the push for broader suffrage?

  The Chartist movement which brought into focus questions about representation, the role of the state in ensuring welfare, and how to balance individual freedom with emerging social needs
• What belief did those who doubled down on classical liberalism adopt?

  Social Darwinism
• What did Samuel Smiles advocate for?

  The concept of self help, emphasising that personal responsibility and individual effort were key to overcoming adversity and achieving success
• What did Smiles suggest individuals could and should do to improve their social and economic conditions?


  Hard work and perseverance rather than relying on state intervention to help them
• Who (else) applied the concept of social Darwinism to society?

  Herbert Spencer, advocated for the idea that like in nature, only the ‘fittest’ survive in an economic context. He promoted a laissez-faire approach, arguing that minimal government intervention allows for natural competition and societal evolution, leading to stroger economies and overall progress.
• Herbert Spencer’s views justified limited state aid and regulation, aligning with classical liberalism‘s emphasis on individual responsibility, but were also highly controversial due to their justification of inequality and poverty
• Who suggested utilitarianism?

  Jeremy Bentham
• What is utilitarianism?

  Deeply rooted in liberal principles of freedom and rationalism, suggested that individuals’ actions were motivated by the pursuit of happiness and the avoidance of pain (mechanistic view of human nature)
• Bentham and others believe that maximising the greatest happiness for the greatest number could be a liberal vision of how the state should act in an industrialised era of greater wealth, resource and inequality
• The Utilitarianism approach provided a rationale for democratic governance, arguing that governments elected by and accountable to the majority were more likely to enact policies that benefit the greatest number of citizens
• What is a concern of Bentham’s utilitaris?

  Its potential implications for minority rights. The emphasis on majority welfare could, in some cases, lead to the interests of minorities being overlooked or overridden, challenging the liberal commitment to individual rights and liberties
• Who was a key opponent to utilitarianism being used to justify state action?

  John Stuart Mill
• What did John Stuart Mill suggest?

  The Harm Principle
• What did the harm principle suggest?

  Articulated in ‘On Liberty’, it provided further justification for individual freedom, stating that the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against their will, is to prevent harm to others
• What does the Harm Principle reinforce?

  The liberal emphasis on personal autonomy and the limits of state intervention
• As calls for universal suffrage grew, Mill updated Locke’s notion of government by consent by advocating for representative democracy. He saw it as a means to reconcile individual liberty with collective decision making
• What was Mill also worried about while supportive of broader democratic participation?

  Tyranny of the majority. He argued for a system of representation where elected officials were not mere delegates of the popular will but were also independent thinkers who could executive their own judgement and represent a diversity of views, aiming to balance majority rule with the protection of minority rights
• Mill also advanced the concept of developmental liberalism 


  He saw it as essential for helping individuals reach their potential and for the proper functioning of society and democracy
• Mill even suggested a plural voting system, where more educated individuals would have more votes, reflecting his belief that an educated electorate was crucial for informed decision-making in a democratic society
• On the whole, Mill can be seen as a transitional liberal, In some senses, he clearly continued to support key classical liberal principles and sought to justify their continued implementation in a changing society. In other ways, Mill developed classical liberalism significantly, through his articulation of a liberal justification for representative democracy and developmental individualism， paving the way for the more radical modern liberal thought afterwards