observational techniques

Created by

akera roycroft

Cards (33)

pilot studies
small scale practice studies conducted prior to the research
why are pilot studies conducted?
Pilot studies are carried out to identify potential problems, so that they can be fixed.
naturalistic observation
the observation is in a natural, day-to-day environment. Behaviour is studied in a natural situation and the researcher does not interfere in any way.
strengths of naturalistic observation
High ecological validity due to observing real-life situations
High external validity as it was done in a natural environment
limitations of naturalistic observation
Little control over confounding and extraneous variables
Replication can be difficult as the environment can not be exactly replicated again
controlled observation
The observation is in a controlled, lab environment and variables are controlled by the researcher
strengths of controlled observation
Researcher is able to focus on a particular aspect of behaviour
Easy replication
limitations of controlled observation
Environment may feel unnatural which may influence participants’ behaviour.
Low mundane realism = low ecological validity.
overt observation 
Participants know they are being observed.
strengths of overt observation
Lack of ethical issues – informed consent is given
limitation of overt observation
Demand characteristics which reduces validity of findings
covert observation 
Participants do not know they are being observed until after the study
strengths of covert observation
Natural behaviour as participants are unaware of observation
limitations of covert observation
Ethical issues including informed consent and invasion of privacy.
participant observation
Researcher takes part in the observation as a participant.
strengths of participant observation
May provide special insights into behaviour from inside that may otherwise not be gained. Increases the validity
limitation of participant observation
Loss of objectivity as the researcher may start to identify too strongly with the participants
non-participant observation
Researcher does not take part in the observation – they are only watching or listening to the behaviour of others.
strength of non-participant observation
Researcher can be more objective as less likely to identify with participants since watching from outside of the group.
limitations of non-participant observation
May loose valuable insight from observing on the sidelines
Open to observer bias
observer bias 
the observer’s expectations affect what they see or hear which reduces validity of observation.
what is a remedy to observer bias
checking inter-observer reliability
inter-observer reliability 
the extent to which two or more observers are observing and recording behaviour in the same way. If there is 80% agreement on the observations, the data has high inter-observer reliability.
unstructured observation 
Continuous recording where the researcher writes everything they see during the observation
strength of unstructured observation
Qualitative data – more richness and depth of detail
limitation of unstructured observation
Qualitative data is more difficult to record and analyse
Greater risk of observer bias – observers may only record eye catching behaviour or behaviours they want to see
structured observation
An observational study using a predetermined list of behaviours and sampling methods to record the participants’ behaviour
strength of structured observation
Good for infrequent behaviours
limitation of structured observation
Counting errors for infrequent behaviours
what systems do researchers use in structured observations to organise
behavioural categories
time sampling
event sampling
behavioural categories 
the target behaviour being observed is broken up into more precise components which are observable and measurable
time sampling
recording of behaviour within a timeframe that is pre-established
event sampling 
counting the number of times a particular behaviour is carried out.