Immune response(A level)

• What are the physical barriers to infection mentioned in the study material?

  Skin, stomach acid, and gut and skin flora
• What is the role of skin in the immune response?

  Skin acts as a tough physical barrier consisting of keratin
• How does stomach acid contribute to the immune response?

  Stomach acid kills bacteria through its hydrochloric acid content
• What is the function of gut and skin flora in the immune system?

  They compete with pathogens for food and space
• What is inflammation in the context of the immune response?

  Inflammation is a response where histamines cause vasodilation and increase blood flow to the infected area
• What role do lysozymes play in the immune response?

  Lysozymes kill bacterial cells by damaging their cell walls
• How do interferons function in the immune response?

  Interferons prevent viruses from spreading to uninfected cells by stopping their protein synthesis
• What is phagocytosis?

  Phagocytosis is the process where specialized white blood cells engulf and destroy pathogens
• What happens to a pathogen after it is engulfed by a phagocyte?

  The pathogen is fused with a lysosome, and enzymes from the lysosome destroy it
• What are the main types of phagocytes?

  Macrophages and neutrophils
• What are antigens?

  Antigens are chemical markers presented on the surface of phagocytes after destroying a pathogen
• What is the difference between self and non-self antigens?

  Self antigens are part of the body's immune system, while non-self antigens are foreign and can initiate an immune response
• What is the specific immune response?

  The specific immune response is antigen-specific and produces responses tailored to one type of pathogen
• Where are B cells produced and matured?

  B cells are produced and mature in the bone marrow
• Where do T cells mature?

  T cells move from the bone marrow to the thymus gland to mature
• What occurs during the primary immune response?

  The immune system initiates antibody production upon first encountering a pathogen
• What is the role of memory cells in the immune response?

  Memory cells replicate when exposed to a pathogen, resulting in a faster immune response
• What is the humoral response?

  The humoral response involves B cells and the production of antibodies
• What is the structure of antibodies?

  Antibodies are Y-shaped glycoproteins with two long identical polypeptide chains and two shorter identical chains
• How do antibodies bind to antigens?

  Antibodies bind to antigens via a 'lock and key' mechanism
• What is the hybridoma method in monoclonal antibody production?

  The hybridoma method involves injecting a mouse with an antigen, removing spleen cells, and fusing them with myeloma cells
• What is the purpose of monoclonal antibodies in cancer treatment?

  Monoclonal antibodies can identify and treat cancer cells by clumping them together or delivering drugs
• What is the difference between active and passive immunity?

  Active immunity results from the production of antibodies by the immune system, while passive immunity comes from the introduction of antibodies from another source

  
• What is natural active immunity?

  Natural active immunity arises from exposure to an antigen or getting the disease
• What is natural passive immunity?

  Natural passive immunity results from the transfer of antibodies from mother to child through the placenta or breast milk
• What is active artificial immunity?

  Active artificial immunity is acquired through vaccinations that stimulate the immune system
• What is passive artificial immunity?

  Passive artificial immunity occurs when antibodies are injected into the body
• How do vaccinations contribute to herd immunity?

  Vaccinations provide long-term immunity and help prevent the spread of disease, protecting unvaccinated individuals
• What is herd immunity?

  Herd immunity occurs when a significant portion of the population is vaccinated, providing indirect protection to unvaccinated individuals