Research Methods

• A theory is a set of general laws or principles that have the ability to explain particular events or behaviours.
• Theory construction occurs through gathering evidence via direct observations.
•  An essential component of a theory is that it can be scientifically tested
• the hypothetico-deductive method is an approach to research that begins with a theory, derives a testable hypothesis the conducts scientific research to see if the theory is supported or refuted by the results
• An experiment is a method of scientific testing to obtain evidence for a theory.
• An experiment includes controlled variables and conditions to perform a fair test and to make sure evidence is valid and objective.
•  An experiment has a hypothesis from the researcher to predict the results from the experiment
• the aim of an experiment is what the researcher intends to investigate
• the hypothesis is a testable statement predicting the outcome of an investigation
• control variables are measures taken in an experiment to ensure fair testing
• the independent varable(IV) is the variable beng manipulated by the researcher
• the dependent variable(DV) is the variable being measured
• the three types of hypotheses are directional, non-directional and null
• directional hypothesis: a hypothesis that predicts the direction of the relationship between two variables.
• non-directional hypothesis: a hypothesis that is not specific about the direction of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables
• null hypothesis: the assumption that there is no difference between the two groups being studied.
• 'drinking energy drinks will cause people to be more talkative' is a directinal hypothesis
• 'there will be a difference in terms of the talkativeness between people who dont drink energy drinks and those who do' is a non-directional hypothesis
• A directional hypothesis is used when a theory or previous research studies suggest a particular outcome
• When there is no theory or previous research findings are contradictory then researchers will use a non-directional hypothesis.
• hypothesis: A statement that is made at the start of a study and clearly describes the relationship between variables as stated by the theory
• confounding variable: A variable that systematically varies alongside the IV and it may affect the DV (aka a second IV)
• Extraneous variable: These variables do not vary systematically with the IV, they are nuisance variables that may affect the DV.
• investigator effects: Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (the DV).
• Control: The extent to which any variable is held constant or regulated by the researcher to prevent it from affecting the DV.
• participant reactivity: When behaviours and reactions are impacted by participants' knowledge that they are part of a study.
• demand characteristics: Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of an investigation
• Please-U effect: A result of demand characteristics.  Participants act in a way that they think is expected and over-perform to please the experimenter
• Screw-U effect: A result of demand characteristics.  Participants deliberately underperform to sabotage the results of the study.
• situational variables: Factors, conditions, or characteristics related to the external environment that can influence a behaviour, decision-making, or outcome.
• participant variables: This refers to the ways in which each participant varies from the other and how this could affect the results, e.g., mood, intelligence, anxiety, nerves, concentration, etc.
• validity: This term refers to whether a psychological test, observation, experiment etc., produces a result that is legitimate.
• internal validity: refers to whether the researcher has managed to measure what they intended to measure.
• external validity : the extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized beyond the specific conditions of the research. This includes generalization to different populations, settings, and times.
• ecological validity: a type of external validity, and refers to the extent which findings from a research study can be generalised to other settings and situations.
• temporal validity is the extent to which the findings of a study are generalisable to other situations
• population validity:  a type of external validity. This refers to the extent to which the findings of a study can be generalised to and have relevance for people beyond the specific group of participants who took part in the research. 
• mundane realism: This refers to how closely the procedures of an experiment resemble real-life situations and activities.
• What are the four types of experiments mentioned in the notes?

  Laboratory, field, natural, and quasi-experiments
• What are the characteristics of laboratory experiments?

  • Conducted in highly controlled circumstances (e.g., lab or classroom)
  • High control over confounding/extraneous variables (EV)
  • High internal validity
  • Easier replication