T2: Memory

• What does coding refer to in memory studies?

  Coding refers to the format or ‘type’ of information stored in each memory store.
• How does coding differ between short-term memory and long-term memory?

  Coding is acoustic in short-term memory and semantic in long-term memory.
• What did Baddeley (1966) demonstrate about memory recall?


  He found that more mistakes are made when recalling acoustically-similar words straight after learning them.
• What is the capacity of short-term memory according to Miller?

  The capacity of short-term memory is thought to be 7 +/- 2 items.
• What is the capacity of long-term memory?

  The capacity of long-term memory is unlimited.
• What is the mean letter span demonstrated by Jacobs?

  The mean letter span was 7.3.
• What is the mean digit span demonstrated by Jacobs?

  The mean digit span was 9.3.
• What is the duration of short-term memory?

  The duration of short-term memory is 18-30 seconds.
• What did Petersen et al (1959) find regarding short-term memory recall?

  They found that increasing retention intervals decreased the accuracy of recall of consonant syllables.
• What is the duration of long-term memory?

  The duration of long-term memory is unlimited.
• What did Bahrick et al (1975) find about long-term memory recall over time?


  They found that photo recognition of graduating classmates decreased from 90% to 70% between 15 years and 46 years after graduating.
• What are the key issues with Jacobs' study on memory capacity?

  • Lack of standardisation
  • Lack of appreciation of scientific methods
  • Potential confounding variables (e.g., noisy room, difficult word lists)

  
• What is a strength of Bahrick et al's 1975 study?

  • Use of meaningful stimuli
  • High mundane realism
  • High ecological validity
• What are the key issues with Petersen et al and Miller et al studies?

  • Low mundane realism
  • Use of artificial stimuli
  • Limited generalisability of findings
• What recent research suggests about Miller's estimate of short-term memory capacity?

  Recent research suggests that the capacity of short-term memory is more similar to 4 chunks rather than the original 5-9 limit.
• What does the multi-store memory model (MSM) represent?

  The MSM represents how memory is stored, transferred between different stores, retrieved, and forgotten.
• What are the three stores in the multi-store memory model?

  The three stores are the sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
• What is the capacity and duration of the sensory register?

  The sensory register has a huge capacity but a duration of less than half a second.
• How does information pass from the sensory register to short-term memory?

  Information will only pass from the sensory register to short-term memory if we pay attention to it.
• What is maintenance rehearsal in short-term memory?

  Maintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat the new information to ourselves to keep it in short-term memory.
• What happens if there is a lack of maintenance rehearsal?

  A lack of maintenance rehearsal causes forgetting.
• What is the encoding type of long-term memory?

  Long-term memory is described as being semantically encoded.
• What must occur for information to be remembered from long-term memory?

  Retrieval must occur to transfer information back into short-term memory.
• What are the different types of long-term memory proposed by Tulving et al.?

  • Procedural memory
  • Semantic memory
  • Episodic memory
• How does the multi-store model of memory (MSM) view long-term memory?

  The MSM sees long-term memory as a single, unitary store.
• What is the difference in retrieval between episodic and semantic memories?

  Episodic and semantic memories must be recalled consciously, while procedural memories are recalled unconsciously.
• What did Petersen et al. find regarding the neurological basis of semantic and episodic memories?

  Petersen et al. found that semantic memories were recalled from the left prefrontal cortex, while episodic memories were recalled from the right prefrontal cortex.

  
• What is the practical application of differentiating between types of long-term memory?

  • Improved understanding of mild cognitive impairments
  • Targeted treatments for episodic memory issues
• What distinction did Cohen and Squire make regarding types of memory?

  Cohen and Squire distinguished between declarative (consciously recalled) and non-declarative (unconsciously recalled) memories.

  
• What do the cases of HM and Clive Wearing illustrate about long-term memory?

  They show that one type of long-term memory may be impaired while others remain unaffected.
• What types of long-term memory were unaffected in Clive Wearing's case?

  Procedural and semantic memories were unaffected.
• What components make up the Working Memory Model (WMM)?

  The WMM consists of the central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.
• What is the role of the central executive in the WMM?

  The central executive allocates tasks to the three slave systems and has a very limited processing capacity.
• What does the phonological loop do in the WMM?

  The phonological loop processes auditory information and allows for maintenance rehearsal.
• What is the capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad according to Baddeley?

  The capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad is around 4-5 chunks.
• What is the function of the episodic buffer in the WMM?

  The episodic buffer integrates all types of data processed by the other stores and links short-term memory to long-term memory.
• What are the criticisms of the central executive in the WMM?

  • Lack of precise definition
  • Vague term 'process'
  • May consist of several sub-components
• What does Shallice and Warrington’s study of KF support regarding the WMM?

  It supports the idea that the components of memory processing auditory and visual stimuli are separate.
• What do studies of dual-task performance suggest about the central executive?

  • Central executive has limited processing capacity
  • Slave systems compete for tasks and resources
• What did Braver et al's neuroscan evidence demonstrate about the central executive?

  It demonstrated a positive correlation between increasing cognitive load and activation levels in the prefrontal cortex.