Issues & Debates

• What is gender bias?

  The differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real differences.
• What is alpha bias?

  A tendency to exaggerate differences between men and women, suggesting real and enduring differences.
• What are the consequences of alpha bias?

  Theories may devalue one gender in comparison to the other, typically devaluing women.
• What are examples of alpha bias in psychology?

  1. Psychodynamic explanations suggest females are less moral than males due to lack of castration anxiety.
  2. Wilson’s theory claims promiscuous females go against their nature, while males are genetically determined.
  3. Schizophrenia diagnosed more in men, masking symptoms in women due to their ability to maintain relationships.
• What is androcentrism?

  The consequence of beta bias where all behavior is compared according to a 'male' standard, neglecting women.
• How does PMS illustrate androcentrism?

  PMS is criticized as a social construction that trivializes female emotion, while male anger is seen as logical.
• What is beta bias?

  A tendency to ignore or minimize differences between men and women, assuming insights from studies of men apply equally to women.
• What are examples of beta bias in psychology?

  1. Fight or flight response research used only male mice, generalizing results to females.
  2. Kohlberg’s moral reasoning theory based on male responses, generalized to both genders.
• What does universality in psychology aim to achieve?

  To develop theories that apply to all people, regardless of their differences.
• What does feminist psychology argue regarding gender differences?

  • Real differences exist but are influenced by social stereotypes.
  • Androcentrism can be countered by a feminist perspective.
  • Training programs can help increase female leadership.
• How can bias in research methods affect gender studies?

  Gender-biased research may find differences that are actually due to the methods used rather than true gender differences.
• What did Rosenthal's study reveal about gender bias in research?

  Male experimenters were more pleasant to female participants, affecting their performance in tasks.
• What is reverse alpha bias?

  The development of theories that emphasize women's strengths, challenging stereotypes of male superiority.
• How has beta bias benefited women in society?

  It has allowed women greater access to educational and occupational opportunities.
• What assumptions need to be challenged regarding gender bias?

  Many theories still reflect gender bias, such as Darwin's theory of sexual selection.
• What is cultural bias?


  The tendency to judge all cultures and individuals based on one's own cultural assumptions.
• What is cultural relativism?


  The view that behavior and morals cannot be judged properly without considering the culture in which they originate.
• What are examples of cultural bias in psychological research?

  • Milgram's obedience study showed different obedience rates across cultures.
  • Ainsworth's Strange Situation misinterpreted German mothers' attachment styles.
• How can cultural relativism lead to alpha bias?

  It can lead to overlooking universals by assuming real differences between cultural groups.
• How does beta bias manifest in defining mental disorders?

  Behaviors considered abnormal in one culture may be normal in another, leading to misdiagnosis.
• What is the emic-etic distinction in psychology?

  The emic approach emphasizes cultural uniqueness, while the etic approach seeks universal aspects of behavior.
• What is ethnocentrism?


  The tendency to evaluate other cultures using the standards of one's own culture.
• What are the consequences of cultural bias in psychology?

  • Stereotyping and discrimination based on biased IQ test results.
  • Institutionalized cultural bias in research methods.
• What is the definition of determinism in psychology?

  The belief that behavior is controlled by external or internal factors beyond an individual's control.
• What are the three types of determinism?

  Biological, environmental, and psychic determinism.
• What is biological determinism?


  The view that behavior is caused by internal biological forces beyond our control, such as genes.
• What is environmental determinism?


  The belief that behavior is caused by previous experiences through conditioning.
• What is psychic determination?

  Freud's theory that adult behavior is determined by innate drives and early experiences.
• What is free will in psychology?

  The power of individuals to make choices about their behavior without external or internal constraints.
• What is hard determinism?

  The view that all behavior can be predicted by internal and external forces, denying free will.
• What is soft determinism?


  A version of determinism that allows for some element of free will in behavior.
• What does Freud’s psychosexual stages of development suggest about unresolved conflicts?

  They lead to fixation in adulthood.
• What is the result of fixation at the anal stage according to Freud?

  It can lead to anal expulsive personalities.
• What is the definition of free will in psychology?

  It is the power to make choices about behavior without being determined by external forces.
• How does hard determinism view behavior?

  It suggests that all behavior can be predicted by internal and external forces beyond our control.
• What does behaviorism suggest about the origins of behavior?

  All behavior is the product of classical and operant conditioning.
• What does the biological approach attribute behavior to?

  It sees behavior as the product of genes and neurochemistry.
• What does soft determinism allow for in terms of free will?

  It allows for some element of free will while suggesting all events have a cause.
• What is the importance of scientific research in psychology?

  It is based on the belief that all events have a cause.
• How is a cause and effect relationship established in scientific research?

  An independent variable is manipulated to affect the dependent variable.