10. Features of Science

• Paradigms and shifts

  • Paradigm - a shared set of assumptions and methods
  • Kuhn suggested that social sciences lack a universally accepted paradigm and are distinct from natural sciences
  • Psychology is marked by to much internal disagreement with conflicting approaches
  • A paradigm shift occurs when there is too much contradictory evidence to ignore and there is a change in the dominant unifying theory
• Theory construction and hypothesis testing

  • Theory - a set of general laws or principles that have the ability to explain particular events or behaviours
  • Theory construction occurs through gathering evidence via direct observation and has to have the ability to be scientifically tested with a number of suggested hypotheses
  • A hypothesis can then be tested using systematic and objective measures to determine whether it will be supported
  • Deduction - the process of deriving new hypotheses from an existing theory
• Falsifiability

  • Popper suggested genuine scientific theories should be tested for the possibility of being proven false
  • 'Pseudosciences' can't be falsified
  • Psychologists avoid using phrases such as 'this proves' in favour of 'this supports' as a hypothesis can be falsified
• Replicability

  • Popper's hypothetico-deductive method is believes that a 'trustable' scientific theory's findings must be repeatable and determines the validity of findings
  • Over a number of different circumstances and contexts we can see the generalisability of findings
  • Investigations must be precise and rigorous for a replication
• Objectivity and empirical method

  • Objectivity - not allowing personal opinions/bias 'discolour' data they collect or influence the behaviour of pps they are studying
  • Empirical method - gathering evidence through direct observation and experience eg. experimental method
  • Locke states that a theory cannot claim to be scientific unless it as been empirically tested and verified
• Peer review

  • Involves all aspects of a written investigation being scrutinised by a small group of usually two or three experts in a particular field. They should conduct an objective review and be unknown to the researcher
  • Main aims - allocate research funding, validate the quality and relevance of research, suggest amendments or improvements
• Implications for the economy

  • How will a study/research impact society and the economy?
  • Role of the father research - shows both parents are equally able to provide emotional support and promotes more flexible working arrangements in the family. Parents can better maximise income
  • Treatments for mental disorders - Absence from work costs the UK economy £15 billion per year, quick and easy access to treatments, SSRIs for OCD, CBT and SD for phobias, has a high economic benefit
• AO3 - Anonymity in peer reviews

  • Strength - makes it likely for the peer to produce a more honest appraisal as they are concentrating only on the research without personal biases
  • Limitation - a minority of reviewers may use their anonymity as a way of criticising rival researchers who they perceive as having crossed them in the past. This is made all the more likely by the fact that many researchers are in direct competition for limited research funding
• AO3 - Publication bias and peer review

  • Limitation - journal editors may only publish significant (positive) results. It is a natural tendency for editors of journals to want to publish significant 'headline- grabbing' findings to increase the credibility and circulation of their publication
  • They also prefer to publish positive results. This could mean that research which does not meet these criteria is ignored or disregarded. Often negative results are just as important in telling us the effect of one variable on another as a positive result
• AO3 - Burying groundbreaking research  

  • The peer review process may suppress opposition to mainstream theories, trying to keep the status quo within particular scientific fields
  • Established scientists are the ones more likely to be chosen as reviewers, particularly by prestigious journals and publishers. As a result, findings that chime with current opinion are more likely to be passed than new and innovative research that challenges the established order.