MEMORY

• What are the two types of coding identified by Baddeley in 1966?

  Acoustic and semantic
• What type of memory is indicated by immediate recall being worse with acoustically similar words?


  Short-term memory (STM)
• What is Miller's magic number regarding the capacity of short-term memory?

  7 ± 2 items
• How can the capacity of short-term memory be increased according to Miller?

  By chunking information into meaningful units
• What is the duration of short-term memory without rehearsal according to Peterson and Peterson?

  Up to 18 seconds
• What is the main function of the multi-store model (MSM) proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin?

  To describe how information flows through the memory system
• What are the three stores in the multi-store model of memory?

  Sensory register, short-term memory, long-term memory
• What type of coding does short-term memory primarily use?

  Acoustic coding
• How does maintenance rehearsal help in memory retention?

  It allows information to be kept in short-term memory as long as it is rehearsed
• What is the coding type for long-term memory?

  Mostly semantic coding
• What is the nature of episodic memory?

  Stores events from our lives and is time-stamped
• How do semantic memories differ from episodic memories?

  Semantic memories are not time-stamped and are more about shared knowledge
• What characterizes procedural memory?

  Memories of how to perform actions and skills without conscious recall
• What is the cognitive interview (CI) based on?

  Psychological understanding of memory
• What is the first technique used in the cognitive interview?

  Report everything
• What does the technique of reinstating the context involve?


  The witness imagines the environment and their emotions during the event
• How does changing the perspective help in the cognitive interview?

  It prevents the influence of expectations and schema on recall
• What is the enhanced cognitive interview (ECI) focused on?

  Social dynamics of the interaction and reducing eyewitness anxiety
• What is weapon focus in the context of eyewitness testimony?

  Witnesses focus on the weapon, which creates anxiety and reduces attention to other details
• What did Johnson and Scott's study find about anxiety and eyewitness identification?

  Participants in the high-anxiety condition were less able to identify the man
• What did Yuille and Cutshall's study reveal about anxiety and eyewitness testimony?

  High levels of stress were associated with more accurate recall
• What does the inverted-U theory suggest about anxiety and performance?

  Performance increases with arousal only to a certain point, after which it decreases
• What did Deffenbacher's review of studies suggest about anxiety and recall?

  Both low and high levels of anxiety produce poor recall, while optimum levels enhance recall
• What is misleading information in the context of eyewitness testimony?

  Information that can alter a witness's memory of an event
• What are leading questions in relation to eyewitness testimony?

  Questions that suggest a particular answer and can influence a witness's recall
• What is the effect of post-event discussion on eyewitness testimony?

  It can lead to the alteration of a witness's memory of the event
• How can the phrasing of a question affect eyewitness testimony?

  It can lead to different recollections of the event based on how the question is framed
• What is the significance of the term "weapon focus" in eyewitness testimony studies?

  It refers to the phenomenon where a witness's attention is drawn to a weapon, impairing their ability to recall other details
• How does anxiety affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony (EWT) for real-world events?

  Anxiety does not appear to reduce the accuracy of EWT and may even enhance it.
• What does the Inverted-U theory state about arousal and performance?


  The Inverted-U theory states that performance will increase with arousal only to a certain point, after which it decreases drastically.
• What are the effects of misleading information on eyewitness testimony?

  • Misleading information can affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.
  • Leading questions can bias recall of an event.
  • Post-event discussions can lead to memory conformity.
• What was the critical question in Loftus and Palmer's (1974) study on leading questions?

  The critical question was: 'About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?'
• How did the verb used in Loftus and Palmer's study affect participants' speed estimates?

  The verb 'smashed' produced a higher mean estimated speed (40.5 mph) compared to 'contacted' (31.8 mph).
• What are the two explanations for why leading questions affect eyewitness testimony?

  The two explanations are the response-bias explanation and the substitution explanation.
• What did Gabbert et al. (2003) find regarding post-event discussion?

  They found that 71% of participants wrongly recalled aspects of the event they did not see but had heard in the discussion.
• What is memory conformity as demonstrated by Gabbert et al. (2003)?


  Memory conformity occurs when witnesses go along with each other to win social approval or because they believe the other witnesses are correct.
• What is the encoding specificity principle (Tulving, 1983)?


  • Memory retrieval is more effective when cues present at encoding are also present at retrieval.
  • Absence of cues can lead to forgetting.
  • Cues can be meaningful or not.
• What did Godden and Baddeley (1975) find regarding context-dependent forgetting?

  They found that accurate recall was 40% lower in mismatched contexts compared to matched contexts.
• What is state-dependent forgetting as demonstrated by Carter and Cassaday (1998)?

  State-dependent forgetting occurs when the cues at encoding are absent at retrieval, leading to more forgetting.
• What are the two types of interference in forgetting?

  • Proactive interference (PI): old information interferes with new.
  • Retroactive interference (RI): new information interferes with old.