Year 4

• Ivermectin will only work on parasites that are bloodsuckers (i.e., mange mites and not lice).  
• In heart failure, the heart's ability to pump blood effectively is compromised, leading to reduced cardiac output. To compensate for this, the body may activate the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), which can lead to increased sodium and water retention by the kidneys. This results in an expansion of plasma volume, which can exacerbate the symptoms and signs of heart failure, such as edema and congestion. This increase in plasma volume is a characteristic metabolic change associated with heart failure. 
• which valve can be auscultated on the right?

  tricuspid
• Carbon dioxide is known as a volatile acid that contributes to the hydrogen ion equilibrium that exists physiologically. Carbon dioxide can combine with water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3), which can then dissociate into bicarbonate (HCO3-) and hydrogen ions (H+). This process is part of the body's acid-base regulation and is essential in maintaining pH balance.
• Ketone bodies, salicylates and lactic acid are part of the non-volatile acids which, if increased, can result in a metabolic acidosis.
• Minute volume is the volume of gas inhaled (inhaled minute volume) or exhaled (exhaled minute volume) from a person's lungs per minute. It is calculated by multiplying the tidal volume (the volume of gas inhaled or exhaled in each breath) by the respiratory rate (the number of breaths taken per minute).
• • Tidal volume is the volume of gas inhaled or exhaled in each breath.
• • Minimum alveolar concentration is the concentration of a gas in the alveoli at the end of expiration.
• • Functional residual capacity is the volume of gas remaining in the lungs after a normal expiration.
• In metabolic acidosis, respiratory compensation will increase the amount of carbon dioxide released from the lungs, which means that the concentration of carbon dioxide in the body is reduced. 
• In respiratory acidosis, the primary issue is the retention of carbon dioxide, which means there will be increased concentrations of carbon dioxide in the body. 
• Medetomidine = A synthetic alpha2-adrenoreceptor agonist with sedative and analgesic  properties
• • Methadone = A synthetic opioid analgesic that works by binding to opioid receptors in the central nervous system.
• A negative base excess is suggestive of?

  Metabolic acidosis
• Norepinephrine = Adrenergic vasopressor
• Compared to furosemide, torsemide….

  Has better and more consistent bioavailability
• Compared to furosemide, torsemide….

  has a longer duration of action and can be given at a lower dose as it is more potent
• Which nerve provides parasympathetic innervation to the bladder?

  Pelvic nerve
• The pudendal nerve is a mixed nerve that provides motor and sensory innervation to the perineum, including the urethra and anus.
• Glycopyrrolate is an anticholinergic drug
• When administered in combination with loop diuretics, thiazide diuretics can lead to:

  Hypokalaemia 
• Tetralogy of Fallot is a congenital heart condition that includes four specific abnormalities:

  1. Pulmonary Stenosis: Narrowing of the pulmonary valve or the pulmonary artery.
  2. Right Ventricular Hypertrophy: Enlargement of the right ventricle.
  3. Overriding Aorta: The aorta is positioned over the ventricular septal defect, receiving blood from both the right and left ventricles.
  4. Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD): A hole in the septum that separates the right and left ventricles.
• Milrinone, a type of PDE III inhibitor, functions by:

  Decreasing the degradation of cyclic AMP
• One notable advantage of PDE III inhibitors like Milrinone over sympathomimetic amines is that they:

  Are unaffected by beta receptor downregulation
• What is a potential risk when using PDE5 inhibitors concurrently with nitrates?

  hypotension
• A branch of the cranial mesenteric artery divides to form the ileocolic, right colic and middle colic arteries, which supply the colon and caecum.  All venous blood from the intestines is returned to the portal vein via cranial and caudal mesenteric veins.
• Atropine = Anticholinergic drug
• What is the primary mechanism of action of nitrates like sodium nitroprusside in treating heart disease?

  Increasing nitric oxide production to induce endothelial smooth muscle relaxation.
• Why is digoxin particularly valuable in managing cardiac disease, especially in cases of atrial fibrillation or supraventricular tachycardia with concurrent CHF?

  It slows AV nodal conduction without concurrent negative inotropic effects.
• Dobutamine = Adrenergic vasopressor
• Dobutamine is a synthetic catecholamine that acts as a β1-adrenergic agonist. It increases myocardial contractility and stroke volume, leading to increased cardiac output. Dobutamine is used to treat cardiogenic shock and other conditions in which the heart is not pumping blood effectively.
• Which nerve provides sympathetic innervation to the bladder?

  hypogastric nerve
• Which of the following vector borne diseases is an obligate intracellular pathogen? the options are ehrlichia canis, louping ill, schmallenberg and bluetongue

  Ehrlichia canis
•  Ehrlichia canis = is a gram negative obligate intracellular bacteria, transmitted by ticks. 
• T3 to L3 lesions = likely upper motor neuron hind limb signs, NORMAL forelimbs
•  Cutaneous trunci reflexes are used for localising which lesions lesions?

  T3 to L3
•  C6 to T2 lesions = Weak and hypotonic forelimbs and spastic paresis of the hindlimbs
• A negative base excess (base deficit) is suggestive of metabolic acidosis
• what is the the mechanism of action of pimobendan?

  Pimobendan sensitises cardiac myocytes to calcium, increasing myocardial contractility.
• Dopamine is an adrenergic vasopressor that acts by stimulating alpha-1 and beta-1 adrenergic receptors. 

  This causes vasoconstriction and increased heart rate and cardiac contractility. Dopamine is used to treat hypotension and shock.