theories and methods

• 1.Functionalism

  -->Sociologists:

  -Talcott Parsons -American sociologist

  -Emile Durkheim -Founding father of Functionalism

  -Robert Merton -American sociologist
• Mechanical vs Organic

  -According to Durkheim, the functions of society had shifted with the emergence of industrialisation

  -As a result, society has developed from a mechanical to organic approach
• Why was mechanical solidarity no longer deemed as functional in "modern" Europe?

  -Very similar roles

  -Shared norms and values

  -Replaceable components to keep machine functioning

  -Slight division of labour
• Organic solidarity

  -Durkheim recognised that mechanical solidarity was lost due to the growth of industrialisation

  -Therefore "modern" societies thrive best when under organic solidarity

  -The notion that society can function as a unit, but with further division of labour
• Organic Analogy

  -However, Parsons (1970) develops organic solidarity further

  -With this, he created organic analogy

  -Specifying the functions of the organs (institutions) of a "modern" society

  -Parsons argues that there are three elements to this:

  -->System-A self- regulating system. 'Organs' (which are made up of cells) that maintain the body/ keep the body going automatically. IN SOCIETY: Institutions such as the family, education system etc., as well as individual roles e.g. teacher, mother.

  -->System needs- Society has basic needs that are required to thrive e.g. nutrition. IN SOCIETY: Members must be socialised adequately for society to function.

  -->Functions-The contributions to the system to which also determines survival e.g. the circulatory system carries oxygen and nutrients. IN SOCIETY: The economy helps maintain the social system by meeting needs for food and shelter.
• The System's Needs

  -->Instrumental Needs:

  Goal Attainment - Society needs to set goals and allocate resources to achieve them. This is the function of the political subsystem, through institutions such as parliament.

  Adaptation - the social system meets its members' material needs through the economic subsystem.

  -->Expressive Needs:

  Integration - the different parts of the system must be integrated together to pursue shared goals. This is the role of the subsystem of religion, education + media.

  Latency - refers to processes that maintain society over time. The kinship subsystem provides patter maintenance (socialising individuals to go on performing the role society requires) and tension management (a place to 'let off steam' after the stresses of work).
• For Parsons, this value consensus is achieved through integration. Integration consists of two 'mechanisms':


  -->Socialisation: The process through which individuals learn the norms and values of society.

  -->Social control:The various methods used to persuade or force individuals to conform to the dominant social norms and values of a society or group.
• Parts of the Social System

  -->Parsons GAIL model:

  -Goal Attainment: The selection and definition of a society's priorities and aims, and providing the means of achieving them. POLITICAL SYSTEM- political parties, pressure groups and parliament and state agencies.

  -Adaptation: Adapting to the environment and providing the basic material necessities for continued human existence. ECONOMY- e.g factories, financial institutions, and shops concerned with economic production.

  -Integration: coordinating all parts of the system to achieve shared goals, with people having a sense of belonging in society. CULTURAL ORGANIZATIONS- media, education and religion socialise individuals into conformity to social norms and values.

  -Latency: minimising social tensions and interpersonal conflicts which might prevent individuals and society from working efficiently. FAMILY AND KINSHIP- family, a place to recharge batteries.
• Social Change

  -Parsons identifies two types of society each with their own norms - traditional and modern. For example, modern societies pursue individual self-interest, achieve status and all individuals are judged on universal standards. On the other hand, traditional societies expect individuals to put the collective interests first, status is ascribed and individuals are judged by standards.

  -Change between these two societies is gradual, an evolutionary process of increasing complexity and structural differentiation, much like an organism evolves (organic analogy).
• Merton's critique (1968)

  -Parsons assumes that all people get along and will follow suit. Parsons ignores agency/ functional autonomy.

  -Parsons assumes that EVERYTHING in society has a positive function. Parsons ignores dysfunction in society. This is not positive for individuals!

  -Parsons assumes that functions and institutions are irreplaceable- he reckons there will be no social order without these.
• Evaluation

  -->Teleological perspective-Functionalists argue things exist based on function, critics suggest functions happen because they exist.

  -->Marxist perspective- Society is not harmonious - upper class exploits lower class - inequality exists - therefore not working together in the way functionalists suggest.

  -->Social action perspective-Functionalists assume that humans are shaped by society, social action argues that humans are shaped by interactions with each other and this builds society.

  -->Postmodern perspective-Argue that functionalism assumes society is stable + orderly - metanarrative of society which is no longer relevant.
• 2- Marxism(conflict perspective)

  Marxists:

  -Karl Marx

  -Friedrich Engels

  Neo-Marxists:

  -Antonio Gramsci

  -Louis Althusser
• Traditional Marxists

  -->Friedrich Engels (1820- 1895):

  -Unspoken founding father of Marxism

  -Referred to as a Philosopher rather than Sociologists

  -Produced numerous literature on the nature of work, social institutions (families) and one of his famous themes- communism.
• Karl Marx (1818- 1883)

  -German Sociologist: Previously a journalist

  -A structuralist

  -Arguably a positivist

  -Did not see progress an inevitable, smooth transition

  -Therefore, acknowledging barriers which highlights the contradictions in a structured society
• Historical materialism

  -This approach is based on the idea that humans come with material needs

  -Therefore, it is inevitable that we work for goods

  -This is known as the forces of production

  -As a result of this, production is directed by the ruling class to meet their own needs

  -Going further the mode of production becomes an economic base for the superstructure
• Exploitation

  -->The Exploited:

  Individuals who are subjected to more labour than needed to produce goods needed (surplus value).

  -->The Exploiter:

  Performs less labour than needed to produce the good that's they consume
• Marx goes even further to suggest that there are three class societies that display their own forms of exploitation:

  -->Ancient society

  -->Feudal society

  -->Capitalist society
• Capitalism

  -Capitalism is based on a division between the bourgeoisie and proletariat.

  -Unlike slaves or serfs, the proletariat are legally free and separated from the means of production, meaning they have to sell their labour to the bourgeoisie to survive.

  -However the exchange is not equal - the proletariat receive enough to keep them alive whilst the bourgeoisie make a profit off of their labour.

  -Competition between capitalists also means that the ownership of means of production becomes more and more concentrated to a few individuals - any independent owners are drive into the proletariat.

  -Capitalism also continues to expands the forces of production in pursuit of profit.

  -All of this leads to class polarisation - a division into the bourgeoisie (minority) and proletariat (majority).
• Alienation

  -Linking back to WPW, we have seen the impact and importance of alienation on society- in particular for the proletariat. Marxists claim that alienation exists in all societies

  -However, in a capitalist society, it is at its peak

  -Why is that? Separation at work, The intensity of the division of labour
• Evaluation

  -->Strengths:

  -Recognises importance of economy and how economic changes influence range of other institutions.

  -Focus on private ownership of means of production provides explanation for extreme inequalities in wealth e.g. wealthiest 1% in UK own 90% of wealth.

  -->Limitations:

  -Marx's predictions have not come true - in Western culture capitalism is stronger than ever and standard of living is better. -Communism in countries like China casts doubts on practicality of implementing communism. Classical marxism overstates conflict.

  -Two-class model is inaccurate e.g. Britain has multiple classes.

  -Over-emphasises class and understates gender, ethnicity, age etc.

  -Too deterministic - economic base and superstructure overemphasised economy. Does not acknowledge that capitalism may come about in other ways e.g. Protestant ethic - individuals believe their afterlife is already determined but work hard to serve God, lead a simple life meaning masses of wealth is gathered.
• Neo Marxism

  -Neo Marxism (often referred to as Left Realism, especially in crime and deviance) emerged after Marx's death

  -Neo Marxists seek to gain understanding of class conflict through a social action approach, rather than as a structuralist

  -Neo Marxism is also known as Humanistic/ Critical Marxism

  -This approach is often used to develop existing traditional Marxist theories, or to go against them
• Hegemony


  -->Gramsci (1891- 1937):

  -Hegemony is the marginalisation of oppressed groups

  -This is shown through the dominance of a ruling class

  According to Gramsci, this occurs in two ways:

  -Coercion and Consent/ hegemony

  -For Gramsci, Traditional Marxists ignore the fact that revolution is harder to obtain due to dual consciousness; we are shaped by the ruling class ideology, as well as our own material conditions.

  -->Therefore, we can only revolt in two ways...

  -Power bloc: Using manpower to outnumber the ruling class as they are a minority.

  -Counter hegemonic bloc: Completely rejecting ruling class ideology - need to offer alternative moral and ideological leadership.
• Criticisms of Base-Superstructure Model

  -Althusser suggests there is a more complex model of society, which Craib calls 'structural determinism'.

  -->This model has three levels:

  -The economic level

  -The political level

  -The ideological level

  -Althusser's model suggests that the political and ideological levels have relative autonomy or partial independence from the economic level. The political and ideological levels are not a mere reflection of the economic level and can even affect what happens to the economy - two-way causality.
• Evaluation

  -->Strengths:

  -Hegemony recognises the importance of people's ideas and actions.

  -Althusser's concept of relative autonomy suggests that institutions in superstructure can influence economy (not just one way).

  -Althusser's structuralist Marxism has been a major influence on theories such as postmodernism that reject the idea that scientific knowledge can be used to improve society.

  -->Weaknesses:

  -Gramsci is a humanist Marxist - believes that people can use their creativity, reason and free will to change society.

  -Althusser suggests that we are not free agents - instead it is false class consciousness and in reality we are products of social structures. Althusser suggests socialism can only come about when there is a crisis of capitalism.

  -Classical marxists argue that Marx did recognize the importance of ideas and meanings, with his discussions of class consciousness.

  -Classical Marxists suggest that neo-Marxists underplay the importance of the economy in shaping social reality.
• 3- Feminism

  -->Strands of Feminism:

  -Liberal

  -Radical

  -Postmodernist

  -Marxist

  -Black
• Liberal

  -Seek to make changes through law and policies

  -Also aim to alter cultural expectations of women

  -Also known as reformist or egalitarian

  -->Achievements:

  -Sex Discrimination Act 1975

  -Equal Pay Act 1970 (now under equality Act 2010)
• Sex and Gender

  -->Ann Oakley (1972)

  -Liberal feminist

  -According to Oakley, liberal feminists make a clear distinction between sex and gender
• Socialisation

  -->According to liberal feminists, sexist attitudes and stereotypical beliefs about gender are culturally constructed and transmitted through socialisation.

  -->Therefore to achieve gender equality we must change society's socialisation patterns

  -->Liberal feminism is an optimistic theory: The believe that:

  -Changes in socialisation and culture are gradually leading to more rational attitudes to gender and overcoming ignorance and prejudice.

  -Political action to introduce anti-discriminatory laws and policies: is steadily bringing about progress to a fairer society in which a person's gender is no longer important.
• Women and roles

  -Liberal feminists in particular, critique Functionalists

  -This is because functionalists tend to focus on roles

  -For liberal feminists, this ideology creates division. This makes equality harder to obtain

  -Parsons suggests there are two roles in which genders play:

  -->Instrumental: Performed in the public sphere; decision making, paid work etc

  -->Expressive: Performed in the private sphere; unpaid work, love, emotion, attachment etc
• Evaluation

  -->Strengths:

  -Liberal feminists have produced evidence documenting the extent of gender inequality and discrimination and legitimised the demand for reform in areas such as equal pay and media representation etc.

  -Liberal feminists have also demonstrated that gender differences are the result of nurture rather than nature.

  -->Limitations:

  -Liberal feminists are criticised for being over optimistic, believing that gender inequality is based on the prejudices of individual or irrational laws that can be gradually reformed, rather than deep-seated structural oppression, such as capitalism or patriarchy.
• Radical

  -->Aims:

  -To remove all men from society (which means removing patriarchy)

  -To create and co- exist in a matriarchal society

  -->Beliefs:

  -Patriarchy is universal- Firestone (1974)

  -Patriarchy is the primary and fundamental form of inequality and conflict

  -All men oppress and exploit women. ALL men benefit from patriarchy
• The person is political?

  -Brownmiller, Rich and Greer all argue that there are sexual politics surrounding women in a patriarchal society.

  -Sexual politics refers to the idea that society has internalised the idea that power and dominance applies to men only.

  -This also suggests that men will 'naturally' assume positions of power in politics, thus facilitating political and institutional oppression.
• Evaluation

  -->Strengths:

  -Acknowledgement of inequality that still exists in society.

  -Suggests a reason why violence against women exists - to maintain men's power and dominance.

  -->Limitations:

  -Marxists - class is primary form of inequality and main cause of women's oppression.

  -Does not explain why subordination looks different in different societies.

  -Does not consider intersectionality.

  -Concept of patriarchy is too vague - male violence is patriarchy, but patriarchy is maintained by male violence.
• Marxist feminists

  -Marxist feminists argue gender inequality arises primarily from the nature of capitalist society, not from an independent system of patriarchy.

  -Capitalism intensifies patriarchal inequalities in pursuit of its own interests.

  -Women are used as a cheap labour force, as a reserve army of labour which can be sacked and returned to the home during periods of economic recession.
• Marxist

  -->Aims:

  -To remove capitalism as this is how patriarchy is exerted

  -Barrett (1980)- to provide more emphasis on women's consciousness, motivations and impact of ideology on women

  -Mitchell (1975)- to acknowledge the psychodynamic approach to women and femininity

  -->Beliefs:

  -Through revolting against a patriarchal society (which is capitalism)

  -This is based on the idea that women are being exploited into unpaid work as a housewife and mother

  -Ultimately, the subordination of women benefits capitalism (which is patriarchal in essence)
• Ideology of Feminism to them

  -Subordination of women provides economic functions e.g. free childcare.

  -Some sociologists argue that we also need to consider the role of ideology in maintaining their oppression.
• Evaluation

  -->Strengths:

  -Recognise the importance of economic production in women's subordination.

  -->Limitations:

  -Cannot explain subordination in non-capitalist societies.

  -Unpaid labour benefits capitalism, but does not explain why is falls to women instead of men - Marxism is 'sex-blind' (Hartman, 1981).

  -Places insufficient emphasis on the ways in which men oppress women and benefit from their unpaid labour.
• Dual-Systems Feminism (Patriarchal Capitalism)

  -Dual system feminists, like Walby , blend Marxist and radical feminist theories. Capitalism and patriarchy are seen as two (dual) separate systems that interact with and reinforce one another in the form of 'patriarchal capitalism'.

  -This generates dual roles for women as both homemakers/child rearers and as paid workers outside the home.

  -For example, patriarchy creates women's primary responsibility for housework and childcare, and related economic dependence on and subordination to men.
• Evaluation

  -->Solution: Remove the twin structures of patriarchy and capitalism, but they also support reform as proposed for liberal feminists, challenging the female/male relationships in both the private and public sphere.

  -->Criticism: A primarily theoretical approach, and for not offering many solutions to the problems of women's subordination that have been already considered by other feminist theories.
• Black feminism

  -->Background:

  -Developed first in the USA as a response to what it saw as the ethnocentrism of feminism as a whole. Black feminists criticised feminism of ignoring the problems faced by ethnic minorities in the US and elsewhere.

  -Black feminists argue that many of their problems have stemmed first from having to fight against racism, which blinded them to the problems they were facing as women in a patriarchal world.