observational tecniques

• naturalistic observation


  watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur.
• Controlled observation


  watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment (one where variables and managed).
• Covert observation


  participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent.
• Overt observation


  participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent.
• Participant observation


  the researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording.
• Non-participant observation


  the researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording.
• why do psychologists conduct observations

  Observations usually allow psychologists to analyse behaviour in a more natural and authentic way, we will look at the effectiveness of this when we evaluate the use of observational studies in psychology throughout the lesson.
• covert observation strengths


  • Covert observations have less risk of investigator effects in comparison to overt observations. There is less chance that the researchers direct or indirect behaviour will have an impact on the performance of the participants.
  • This also means that there is less chance of demand characteristics occurring, since they are unaware participants cannot guess the aim of the investigation.
  • Behaviour is seen as more natural and representative of everyday behaviour.
• covert observations limitations

  • Ethical issues associated with the covert method of observation as participants are not aware that they are being observed, they cannot give fully informed consent or exercise the right to withdraw.
  • An assessment is made by the researcher before the observation begins to ensure that no privacy laws are being violated.
• overt observation strengths


  • This is often more ethical than the covert method.
  • It is possible to inform participants in advance of the aims and therefore informed consent can be obtained and exercise their right to withdraw.
  • The reputation pf psychological research as being ethical is protected.
• overt observation limitations


  • Possibility of investigator effects, the investigator can influence behaviour of the participants in a way that is not intended (body language/facial expressions etc).
  • Participants may change their behaviour through demand characteristics and act in accordance with their perception of he aims.
  • Authentic and natural behaviour is not being observed, reducing the validity (accuracy) of the observation.
• participant observation strengths

  • The researcher can gather in-depth data as they are in close proximity to the participants, they are able to gain a unique insight into the behaviour in question. 
  • They are unlikely to overlook any behaviour that may be missed without becoming a participant of the activity.
• participant observations limitations


  • Possibility of investigator effects and the impact of the researcher on the other participants’ behaviour.
  • The participants may change their behaviour through demand characteristics act in accordance with their perception of he aims.
  • Authentic and natural behaviour is not being observed, reducing the validity (accuracy) of the observation.
• non-participant observations strengths

  • Investigator effects are less likely compared to a participant observation.
  • The behaviour of the investigator is  unlikely to have a negative impact on the behaviour of the participants, behaviour is more likely to be representative of a natural and unaltered human conduct. 
• non-participant observation limitations

  • Due to lack of proximity to the participant being studied, the researcher might miss behaviours of interest.
  • This means that unique insights which contribute to the understanding of the human behaviour being observed will be overlooked because of not being involved personally.
• naturalistic observation strengths

  • They have higher ecological validity (accuracy outside of the research setting)
  • This means that behaviour being observed is likely to be more representative of everyday activities and reflect spontaneous actions that sometimes occur incidentally.
• naturalistic observation limitations

  • Issues with reliability (consistency) with naturalistic observations as they are records of naturally occurring behaviour, it is impossible for the exact same conditions to be replicated. 
  • This means that research attempting to understand human behaviour using naturalistic observations often lacks replicability.
• controlled observation strengths

  • Controlled observations can be replicated to check for reliability (consistency), their variables are highly controlled.
  • This means that standardised procedures, manipulation of independent variable and control over extraneous variables can be repeated by the same or different researchers to assess reliability.
• controlled observation limitations

  • They have a lower level of external validity because the researcher records behaviour in an artificial environment with variables subject to strict manipulation. 
  • This means that participants behaviour no longer represents real life occurrences, causing the validity of the findings to be questionable. 
• structured observation strengths

  • The researcher can compare behaviour between participants and across groups.
  • The use of operationalised behavioural categories makes coding data easier.
  • When there is more than one observer the standardised behaviour schedule results in greater inter-observer reliability.
• structured observation limitations

  • However, there problems with internal validity in a structured observation, this is because the researcher may miss some crucial behaviours during the observation that are related to the aim of the investigation. 
  • As a result, the findings may not portray a full picture about the behaviour in question. 
• unstructured observation strengths


  • Behaviour is recorded in detail and therefore it can be described as very rich in detail because researchers are able to obtain a comprehensive view of human behaviour. 
  • This adds to the internal validity of the observation technique.
• unstructured observation limitations

  • However, this type of observation is prone to observer bias due to the lack of objective behaviour categories. 
  • This is a problem because the observer may only record behaviour which is of subjective value to them and not a valid representation of what is actually being displayed.
  • As a result, there may be a problem with inter-observer reliability as there will be a lack of consistency in the observations recorded.
• inter-observer reliability (consistency)


  it is recommended that researchers do not conduct observational studies alone. Single observers may miss important details or may only notice events that conform their opinions or hypothesis. This introduces bias into the research process.