research methods

• What are demand characteristics in research?

  Demand characteristics occur when participants try to interpret the true or hidden aim of the research.
• What is a problem associated with demand characteristics?

  Participants may overperform or underperform, leading to results that do not reflect real-life behavior.
• What are the implications of demand characteristics on research findings?

  They limit generalizability and make it difficult to establish cause and effect.
• What are investigator effects?

  Investigator effects are any unwanted influences of the investigator on the research.
• What are some forms of investigator effects?

  Forms of investigator effects include unconscious cues, expectancy effects, and leading questions.
• How do leading questions affect research results?

  Leading questions influence participants towards what the researcher wants, resulting in bias and inaccurate results.
• What does manipulating one variable in an experiment allow researchers to investigate?

  Changes in a measurable variable.
• What is the role of a hypothesis in research methods?

  To provide a clear testable prediction that states the relationship between variables.
• What is a research question?

  A question that the researcher endeavors to answer.
• What is the aim of a research study?

  A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate.
• What are the three types of hypotheses mentioned?

  Directional, non-directional, and null hypotheses.
• What does a directional hypothesis identify?

  The difference between levels of the independent variable.
• What does a non-directional hypothesis state?

  That there is a difference between levels of the independent variable without specifying the nature of the difference.
• What does a null hypothesis propose?

  That there is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
• What is a confounding variable?

  A variable that varies systematically with the independent variable and may affect the dependent variable.
• What is a participant variable?


  A variable centered around participants that could compound results if not controlled.
• Why is it important to control variables in research?

  To ensure reliability, internal validity, and external validity of the findings.
• What does reliability refer to in research methods?

  The consistency of a measuring device in assessing behavior.
• What is internal validity?


  The confidence that the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable is established.
• What is external validity?

  The ability to generalize findings to other settings, populations, and over time.
• What is primary data?

  Data collected firsthand by the researcher for a specific purpose.
• What is a strength of primary data?

  Increased validity due to increased control.
• What is a limitation of primary data?

  It is time-consuming and not cost-effective.
• What is secondary data?

  Data that has been collected for other intended purposes.
• What is a strength of secondary data?

  It is time-efficient and cost-effective.
• What is a limitation of secondary data?

  It may not precisely reflect the research aim and can introduce bias.
• What is a case study?

  • An in-depth investigation, description, and analysis of a single individual or event.
  • Often involves unusual individuals or events.
• What type of data is produced in a case study?

  Qualitative data.
• What methods are commonly used in case studies to gather data?

  • Interviews
  • Observations
  • Case history
• What is the benefit of using case studies in research?


  They provide rich, detailed insights into unusual forms of behavior.
• How do case studies contribute to understanding typical functioning?

  They help in understanding typical functioning by providing insights from unusual cases.
• What is a limitation of case studies ?

  Generalizing findings is an issue due to small sample sizes.
• Why is the final information from case studies considered subjective?

  Because it relies on the interpretation of the researcher.
• What issues can arise from the subjectivity in case studies?

  It can lead to inaccuracies and memory decay in participants.
• What is a noted drawback of case studies in terms of validity?

  Case studies are low in validity.
• What does a scattergraph depict?


  Associations between covariables
• What is the purpose of qualitative data measurement?

  To gain detailed insight on unusual cases
• What type of data does a histogram depict?

  Continuous data
• What is the role of coding in content analysis?

  Coding involves identifying each instance or record in the data
• What are the characteristics of a bar chart?

  • Depicts differences between variables
  • Used for nominal data (categories)
  • Shows differences between mean/median values
  • Bars must be separated