Research Methods

• What are the four types of psychological experiments?

  • Laboratory
  • Field
  • Natural
  • Quasi
• What is a laboratory experiment?


  Lab experiments involve tightly controlled artificial conditions, in which the independent variable is directly controlled by the experimenter, eg. Loftus and Palmer.
• What are advantages of laboratory experiments?

  • High internal validity, with little influence from extraneous confounding variables.
  • Involves standardised procedures, making them easy to replicate.
  • The manipulation over variables allows for a cause and effect to be established.
• What are disadvantages of laboratory experiments?

  • They lack ecological validity, not representing real life.
  • Participants may display demand characteristics after figuring out the aim of the study.
• What is field experiment?


  Takes place in a less controlled, natural environment, investigating causal relationships between the independent and dependant variables; with the independent variable being controlled by the experimenter, eg. Zimbardo.
• What are advantages of a field experiment?

  • The environment is more realistic, increasing ecological validity
  • It is less obvious that an experiment is taking place, decreasing the chance of demand characteristics being an issue.
• What are disadvantages of a field experiment?

  • Less control of extraneous confounding variables reduces internal validity.
  • More time consuming and subsequently more expensive.
  • Ethical issues could arise as participants may not be aware of being studied.
• What is a natural experiment?


  An experiment that involves no control from the experimenter, with an independent variable that is not directly manipulated due to ethical or practical reasons, eg. Rutter.
• What are the advantages of a natural experiment?

  • Done in an entirely natural settings with real life problems, making the ecological validity and mundane realism high.
  • Allow research to be carried out that couldn't usually be done for ethical and practical reasons.
• What are disadvantages of a natural experiment?

  • Without control of the independent variable, a causal relationship cannot be explored.
  • It can only be carried out where conditions naturally vary, and can have issues with reliability.
  • Pre existing sample bias could be present, causing under or over representation of a certain group within the population.
  • There could be potential ethical issues, as they may not be aware of the study being carried out.
• What is a quasi experiment?


  An investigation that explores the relationship between an independent variable and dependent variable in situations where the independent is a characteristic, and therefore not controlled by the investigator.
• What are advantages of the quasi experiment?

  • It allows researchers to make comparisons between different types of people.
  • Strong ecological validity and mundane realism.
• What are disadvantages of the quasi experiment?

  • Random allocation is not possible with quasi experiments, causing a lack of control over some confounding variables, and therefore a lack of internal validity.
  • As random sampling cannot be used, generalisation may be limited.
  • Risk of demand characteristics, as participants may easily figure out the aim of the study if the independent variable is based on a visible, physical characteristic.
• What is mundane realism and ecological validity?

  The extent to which an experiment or research study accurately captures and represents real world experiences and situations.
• What is population validity?


  How well can the sample be extrapolated to the larger population, how representative is the research.
• What is temporal validity?


  The extent to which the findings of a study remain relevant and applicable at different periods in time.
• What is external validity?


  The extent to which you can generalise the findings of a study to other situations, peoples, settings, and measures; including ecological validity, population validity, and temporal validity.
• What are demand characteristics?


  When participants change their behaviours in response to the demands of the study, and what their believe the researcher hopes to see.
• What is social desirability bias?


  The tendency for participants to act or answer in a way that appears favourable to others.
• What is investigator effect?


  Any influence the investigator has towards the participants, effecting their behaviour and the results concluded.
• What is conformation bias?


  The tendency to search for, interpret, favour, and recall information in a way that supports and is consistent with their pre-existing beliefs; a researcher may interpret results in a way that matches what they had hoped to find.
• What is bias in psychology?


  This is prejudice for or against a certain thing, and includes demand characteristics, social desirability bias, investigator effects, and confirmation bias.
• What is operationalisation?


  How well an abstract concept can be turned into measurable observations.
• What are confounding variables?


  An unmeasured third variable that influences both the dependant and independent variables, both the supposed cause and effect.
• What are extraneous variables?


  Any variable other than the independent and dependant variables that may unintentionally influence the findings of the study; the environment, characteristics etc, variables that can be minimized but not eliminated.
• What is internal validity?


  This refers to how well designed the research and how confidently causal conclusions are drawn, minimizing the effect of confounding variables; including bias, operationalisation, and confounding variables.
• What is validity?


  The extent to which a concept, conclusion, or measurement is accurate and legitimate in what it intends to represent or measure.
• How do we assess validity?

  1. Face validity - do these results feel right and are we measuring what we are intended to, according to a non-expert judgement.
  2. Predictive validity - the extent to which a test or measurement can accurately foresee future outcomes or behaviours
  3. Concurrent validity - the extent to which the results of a test or measure corresponds with those of an already established test or criterion that is considered valid.
• What is a true experiment?


  A study in which the researcher has complete control over all aspects of the study in order to prove or disprove a cause and effect relationship between two variables; it must have a control, experimental group, and random allocation.
• Which experiments are true?


  Lab and field; quasi are true in all ways aside from random allocation, and natural is completely uncontrolled so are not true.
• What is observational research?


  This is where scientists conduct a clinical or case study where they focus on few individuals, gaining in depth insight and a deep understanding of the individuals they are studying; classified as non experimental.
• What are limitations of observational research?


  Observational research often involves the use of individuals that display characteristics appealing the the researcher, and this focus of a specific group of people decreases the population validity, as well as applicability.
• What does natural observation involve?


  This involves exploring behaviour in its natural context, however it is usually done in an unobtrusive and inconspicuous way to avoid demand characteristics occuring.
• What are advantages of naturalistic observation?

  • It has strong ecological validity and mundane realism.
  • Its ecological validity increases its generalisability and application to real world situations.
• Disadvantages of naturalistic observation?

  • It is often more challenging to set up and control.
  • This lack of control decreases its internal validity, reducing control over extraneous confounding variables.
  • Often costs more money and time.
• What are controlled observations?


  When behaviour is studied in a controlled and structured environment, but it is not an experiment as it has no independent or dependant variables, eg. Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation (1969).
• What are the advantages of a controlled observation?

  • They allow a cause and effect relationship to be formed.
  • High internal validity can be achieved due to tight control over extraneous variables.
  • A standardised procedure is carried out, making the experiment easily repeatable and replicable.
• What are disadvantages of controlled observation?

  • The ecological validity remains low as the conditions don't replicate that of the real world.
  • The population validity is low as the results cannot be easily extrapolated to a large population.
• What is a overt observation?

  When people know they are being observed, and researchers are open about the aims of their research; increasing the likelihood of demand characteristics.
• What is covert observation?


  When people are not aware that they are being observed because the researcher is undercover, decreasing the chance of demand characteristics; covert behaviour is processes that occur in the mind and cannot be directly observed.