Memory: Short and Long Term memory (1)

• What is the term for memory of events in the present or immediate past?

  Short-term memory (STM)
• What is the term for memory of events that have happened in the more distant past?

  Long-term memory (LTM)
• What are the key distinctions between short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM)?


  • **Capacity**: STM is limited; LTM is potentially infinite.
  • **Duration**: STM lasts seconds to minutes; LTM can last from 2 minutes to 100 years.
  • **Coding**: STM tends to be coded acoustically; LTM tends to be coded semantically.
• How is the capacity of short-term memory assessed?

  Using digit span technique
• What did Joseph Jacobs find regarding the average span for digits and letters?


  The average span for digits was 9.3 items and 7.3 for letters
• Why might it be easier to recall digits than letters according to Jacobs?

  Because there are only nine digits compared to 26 letters
• What is the "magic number" proposed by George Miller regarding immediate memory?


  7 ± 2
• What did Miller conclude about the span of immediate memory?


  It is about seven items, sometimes a bit more or less
• How does chunking affect memory recall according to Miller's findings?


  Chunking allows people to remember more items by grouping them
• What did Cowan (2001) conclude about the capacity of STM?


  STM is likely limited to about four chunks
• What did Simon (1974) find regarding the size of chunks in memory recall?


  People had a shorter memory span for larger chunks than smaller chunks
• How does age affect the capacity of short-term memory according to Jacobs' findings?


  Recall increases with age; older individuals can remember more digits
• What was the average digit span for eight-year-olds according to Jacobs?


  1. 6 digits
• What was the average digit span for 19-year-olds according to Jacobs?


  1. 6 digits
• What does the duration of short-term memory suggest about its nature?


  STM has a short duration unless items are rehearsed
• What did Lloyd and Margaret Peterson (1959) study regarding STM duration?


  They studied the duration of STM using consonant syllables and digits
• What were the results of Peterson and Peterson's study after 18 seconds?


  Participants were only 2% correct
• What does Bahrick et al.'s (1975) study suggest about the duration of LTM?


  LTM can last a long time, with accuracy declining over decades
• What was the accuracy of participants in Bahrick et al.'s study who were tested within 15 years of graduation?


  About 90% accurate
• What was the accuracy of participants in Bahrick et al.'s study after 48 years?


  About 70% for photo recognition
• What is a criticism of the research investigating STM according to the study?


  It is artificial and does not reflect everyday memory activities
• What is a criticism of Peterson's study regarding STM measurement?


  Counting numbers may displace the syllables to be remembered
• What did Reitman (1974) find regarding the duration of STM?


  Using auditory tones instead of numbers showed longer duration of STM
• What are the key terms related to memory discussed in the study?

  • **Capacity**: Measure of how much can be held in memory.
  • **Coding**: The way information is changed for storage.
  • **Duration**: How long a memory lasts.
  • **Short-term memory (STM)**: Memory for immediate events, lasts seconds to minutes.
  • **Long-term memory (LTM)**: Memory for past events, lasts from 2 minutes to 100 years.
• How is information coded in memory?

  Information is coded acoustically, visually, or semantically
• What did Baddeley (1966 and 1976) find regarding acoustic and semantic coding?


  Participants had difficulty with acoustically similar words in STM but not in LTM
• What does Baddeley's research suggest about STM and LTM coding?


  STM is largely encoded acoustically, while LTM is largely encoded semantically
• What is a criticism of Baddeley's methodology in testing LTM?


  It is questionable whether waiting 20 minutes tests LTM
• What did Zeigarnik's research suggest about memory retention?


  People remember interrupted tasks better than completed tasks
• What was the main finding of Zeigarnik's study regarding task completion?


  Participants remembered interrupted tasks better
• What does the term 'informed consent' refer to in research?


  Participants must be informed about the study before agreeing to take part
• What is the age range of participants in Bahrick et al.'s study?


  17–74 years
• What was the accuracy of free recall in Bahrick et al.'s study after 15 years?


  About 60% accurate
• What was the accuracy of free recall in Bahrick et al.'s study after 48 years?


  About 30% accurate
• What are the key components of memory research methods discussed in the study?

  • **Repeated measures**: Participants are tested multiple times.
  • **Laboratory experiments**: Controlled environment for testing.
  • **Informed consent**: Participants must be informed about the study.
• What is the significance of the findings from Bahrick et al.'s study regarding LTM?


  It demonstrates the considerable duration of LTM over decades
• What does the term 'displacement' refer to in the context of memory studies?


  When new information overwrites old information in memory
• What did Frost (1972) find regarding long-term recall?


  Long-term recall was related to visual as well as semantic categories
• What did Nelson and Rothbart (1972) find regarding coding in LTM?


  They found evidence of acoustic coding in LTM
• What does the study suggest about the variability of coding in LTM?


  Coding in LTM can vary according to circumstances