Treating disease

• Why were many people dying from bacterial diseases until the 1940s?

  Because there were no effective treatments available before antibiotics were discovered
• What is the first antibiotic that was discovered?

  Penicillin
• What is antibiotic resistance?

  It is when bacteria evolve and are no longer killed by antibiotics
• Why is antibiotic resistance considered a serious problem?

  Because bacterial diseases may become very difficult to treat in the future
• Why are doctors careful when prescribing antibiotics?

  They use specific antibiotics to treat specific bacteria
• Can antibiotics kill viruses?

  No
• Why won't doctors prescribe antibiotics for conditions that may be caused by a virus?

  Because antibiotics are ineffective against viruses
• What type of drug do doctors prescribe to relieve pain?

  Painkillers
• How do painkillers differ from antibiotics?

  Painkillers treat symptoms by relieving pain, but do not kill pathogens
• Why is it difficult to develop drugs that kill viruses?

  Because viruses live and reproduce inside human cells, making it hard to target them without damaging body tissues
• Why do new medicines need to be extensively tested?

  To ensure their safety and effectiveness
• From where were medicines often extracted in the past?

  Plants
• What are the key points about antibiotics that need to be learned?

  • Antibiotics treat bacterial infections
  • They are specific to certain bacteria
  • Antibiotics cannot kill viruses
  • Painkillers relieve symptoms but do not treat the disease
• What drug was extracted from the foxglove plant?

  Digitalis
• What are the implications of antibiotic resistance?

  • Bacterial diseases may become harder to treat
  • Increased risk of severe infections
  • Potential for higher healthcare costs
  • Need for alternative treatments
• Which painkiller was extracted from willow trees?

  Aspirin
• Who discovered penicillin and from which microorganism?

  Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin from the mould Penicillium
• What is the current trend in the synthesis of new drugs?

  Most new drugs are synthesized by chemists in pharmaceutical companies
• What is the first stage of drug testing called?

  Preclinical testing
• Why is preclinical testing not carried out on humans?

  Because a drug could be extremely toxic
• On what subjects is preclinical testing carried out?

  Cells, tissues, or live animals
• What happens after preclinical testing?

  The drug undergoes clinical testing on humans
• What is the purpose of the first stage of clinical testing?

  To check that the drug is safe for humans
• What is given to healthy volunteers during the first stage of clinical testing?

  Very low doses of the drug
• What is the goal of continuing clinical testing after initial safety checks?

  To find the optimal dose with the fewest side effects
• What is a placebo?

  A tablet or injection with no active drug in it
• Why might some patients get better when given a placebo?

  Because they believe they are being treated
• What is a double-blind test?

  A test where neither patients nor doctors know who receives the active drug
• What is the purpose of a double-blind trial?

  To stop bias in the testing process
• What are the main stages of drug testing?

  1. Preclinical testing

  • Conducted on cells, tissues, or live animals
  • Checks toxicity

  1. Clinical testing

  • First stage involves healthy volunteers
  • Checks safety and optimal dosage
  • Uses placebos in double-blind trials
• What are the sources of new medicines?

  • Plants (e.g., digitalis from foxglove, aspirin from willow)
  • Microorganisms (e.g., penicillin from Penicillium)
  • Synthetic drugs from pharmaceutical companies
• What is the significance of testing drugs on healthy volunteers?

  • Ensures the drug is safe for human use
  • Helps determine the appropriate dosage
• How does a placebo affect drug testing outcomes?

  • Patients may improve due to belief in treatment
  • Helps assess the actual effectiveness of the drug
• What is a monoclonal antibody?

  A monoclonal antibody is an antibody produced from a single clone of hybridoma cells.
• How are monoclonal antibodies produced?

  They are produced by fusing lymphocytes with tumor cells to create hybridoma cells.
• What type of white blood cells produce antibodies?

  Lymphocytes produce antibodies.
• What do antibodies stick to?

  Antibodies stick to pathogens.
• What are foreign objects that trigger antibody production called?

  Antigens are foreign objects that trigger antibody production.
• What is the role of lymphocytes in the immune system?

  Lymphocytes produce antibodies against foreign objects detected by the body.
• How can scientists trigger lymphocytes to produce antibodies?

  By injecting an antigen into the body.