issues and debates in psychology

• What is gender bias?

  The differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real differences.
• What is alpha bias?

  A tendency to exaggerate differences between men and women, suggesting real and enduring differences.
• What are the consequences of alpha bias?

  Theories may devalue one gender compared to the other, typically devaluing women.
• What is an example of alpha bias in psychodynamic explanations for offending behavior?

  Freud suggested females are less moral than males due to not experiencing castration anxiety.
• How does Wilson’s sociobiological theory illustrate alpha bias?

  It suggests sexual promiscuity in males is genetic, while promiscuous females go against their nature.
• What historical trend in schizophrenia diagnoses illustrates alpha bias?

  Schizophrenia has been diagnosed more frequently in men since the 1980s.
• According to Cotton et al, why might women’s schizophrenia symptoms be overlooked?

  Women may maintain good relationships and show less distress, masking their symptoms.
• What is androcentrism?

  The consequence of beta bias where behavior is compared to a male standard, neglecting women.
• How has PMS been criticized in relation to androcentrism?

  PMS is seen as a social construction that trivializes female emotion, particularly anger.
• What is an example of beta bias in research on fight or flight response?

  Research typically used male animals, assuming findings applied to females without considering hormonal variations.
• How did Shelley Taylor challenge the beta bias in fight or flight research?

  She provided evidence that females produce a tend-and-befriend response during stress.
• What is beta bias?

  A tendency to ignore or minimize differences between men and women.
• How did Kohlberg’s levels of moral reasoning illustrate beta bias?

  His theory was based on studies of American males, then generalized to both genders.
• What is universality in psychology?

  The aim to develop theories that apply to all people, regardless of differences.
• What does feminist psychology argue about perceived differences?

  It argues that socially determined stereotypes contribute more to perceived differences than biological explanations.
• How can androcentrism be countered according to feminist psychology?

  By acknowledging differences and developing suitable training programs for women leaders.
• What did Rosenthal's study reveal about gender bias in research methods?

  Male experimenters were more pleasant to female participants, affecting their performance.
• What is reverse alpha bias?

  The development of theories that emphasize women's strengths over men's.
• How did research by Cornwell et al (2013) challenge stereotypes about women?

  It showed that women are better at learning due to being more attentive, flexible, and organized.
• What is the potential downside of arguing for equality in beta bias?

  It may overlook women's special needs, such as those related to pregnancy and childbirth.
• How does Darwin’s theory of sexual selection portray gender roles?

  It suggests women are choosy while males compete to be chosen, portraying women as coy and men as aggressive.
• What is cultural bias?

  The tendency to judge all cultures based on one's own cultural assumptions.
• What is cultural relativism?

  The view that behavior and morals cannot be judged without considering the culture in which they originate.
• How did Milgram’s study illustrate cultural bias?

  His original study was conducted with American participants, and results varied significantly in other cultures.
• How can cultural relativism lead to alpha bias?

  It can lead psychologists to overlook universals by assuming real differences exist between cultures.
• What is an example of beta bias in defining mental disorders?

  Behaviors considered abnormal in one culture may be normal in another, such as hearing voices in African cultures.
• What is the distinction between individualistic and collectivist cultures?

  Individualistic cultures value personal needs, while collectivist cultures prioritize group needs.
• What did Takano and Osaka's review of studies reveal about cultural differences in conformity?

  14 out of 15 studies did not support the common view of differences in conformity between the US and Japan.
• What is the "imposed etic" approach in psychology?

  It refers to applying theories developed in one culture to another without considering cultural differences.
• What is ethnocentrism?

  The tendency to evaluate other cultures based on the standards of one's own culture.
• How can indigenous psychologies counter ethnocentrism?

  By developing theories specific to different cultural contexts.
• What is an example of cultural relativism in Ainsworth’s Strange Situation?

  German mothers were deemed cold for showing little separation anxiety, reflecting cultural bias in attachment theory.
• What is the emic-etic distinction in psychology?

  The emic approach focuses on cultural uniqueness, while the etic approach seeks universal aspects of behavior.
• What did Smith and Bond's survey reveal about cultural bias in psychology research?

  66% of studies were American, indicating a significant cultural bias in psychological research.
• What were the consequences of cultural bias in the US army IQ test?

  European immigrants scored lower than white Americans, leading to stereotyping and discrimination.
• What is the significance of universal behaviors in psychology?

  Some behaviors, like facial expressions, are recognized across all cultures, indicating commonalities in human behavior.
• How has increased global travel impacted psychology research?

  It has led to a greater understanding of other cultures and reduced ethnocentrism in psychological research.
• What is the role of international conferences in psychology?

  They facilitate the sharing of ideas and reduce ethnocentrism by appreciating cultural differences.
• What is determinism in psychology?

  The belief that behavior is controlled by external or internal factors beyond an individual's control.
• What are the three types of determinism?

  Biological, environmental, and psychic determinism.