Gender

• Biological explanations?

  • Lombroso
  • Pollak
  • Chivalry Thesis
• Lombroso


  • males genetically more likely to commit crime
  • women = passive, lack intelligence to break law
  • women who are criminal -> have masculine features/instinct
• Pollak 1950


  • females commit crime just as much as men
  • commit different crimes
  • women = biologically devious (conceal periods, appear passive)
  • women = masterminds -> manipulate men to do crime for them
  • females receive more lenient consequences than men
• Chivalry Thesis


  • women treated better in criminal justice system -> seen as vulnerable/ not responsible for actions -> mitigating factors
  • male officers let females off more

  EVIDENCE ->

  1. Speed & Burrows 2006 - male offender 2x more likely to recieve custodial sentence
• Chivalry Thesis EVALUATION


  1. Too Simplistic -> only applicable to M/C white women
  2. Heidensohn -> only applicable to women who fit the stereotype
  3. Farrington & Morris 1983 -> females more likely to plead guilty
  4. Hedderman & Gunby 2013 -> judges see women to have more complex issues; relationships, single-parent etc
  5. Females treated MORE harshly -> Walklate 1995
  6. Chesney-Lind -> females demonised when they break female stereotype; sexual behaviour in girls sanctioned with 'training schools' more than boys
• Messerschmidt


  • males feel pressured to achieve hegemonic masculinity (stronger, dominant etc)
  • youth crime is way of expressing masculinity when NO legitimate options available
• Winlow-> supports Messerschmidt


  • argues male offending is due to 'crisis of masculinity'

  1980's Sunderland study:

  • W/C males experienced mass unemployment
  • lost breadwinner status
  • violence/crime was a way of expressing masculinity
  • new masculine careers emerged; security, drug dealers
• Functionalist -> Sutherland-> Sex-role theory


  Boys brought up to be more aggressive -> more likely to commit crime -> don't know when enough is enough

  Boys:

  • more freedom
  • active
  • skill focused
  • extroverted
  • aggressive

  Girls:

  • supervised
  • passive
  • domesticated
  • introverted
  • calm
• Functionalist -> Parsons


  • gender roles in nuclear family contribute to male offences
  • females -> socialised to be passive by mother
  • males -> less access male role model (dad @ work etc) leads to status anxiety -> become hyper masculine/ deviant
• Feminist -> Smart


  • argues biological factors = UNIMPORTANT
  • females face stricter socialisation in family (going out/parties, where they go, who with)
  • exaggerated fear of safety for females
  • prisoners in own home
  • women offender = DOUBLY DEVIANT -> breaking laws & stereotypes face harsher consequences
• Feminist -> Alder -> Liberation Thesis


  • author of 'sisters in crime' (data from 60's)
  • found growing trend for female criminality
  • predicted huge increase for female crime (hasn't happened)
• Liberation Thesis -> Alder


  • growing freedom allows women to leave domestic sphere
  • development of masculine traits (ladettes)

  A02 -> prostitution/shoplifting

  4th wave feminist - Alexander

  • sex-work = sex positive; real issue is labels from society
  • support for women agency over own bodies -> their body their choice
• Liberation Thesis EVALUATION


  • 2nd wave feminist - Bindel
  • prostitution = paid rape; if consent is bought, its NOT consent
  • women aren't committing offences due to liberation -> its due to POVERTY
  • (A02 -> Lily Phillips)