Practical Research

• Descriptive statistics uses the data to provide descriptions of the population, either through numerical calculations or graphs or tables.
• Inferential Statistics makes inferences and predictions about a populations based on a sample of data taken from the population in question.
• mode refers to the most frequently occurring score in a distribution.
• median it is the middlemost value in a distribution below or above which exactly 50% of is cases that are found.
• mean it is the exact mathematical center of a distribution. it is equal to the sum of all scores divided by the number of cases.
• range differences between the highest value and the lowest value in the given distribution.
• average deviation it is the measure of variation that takes into consideration the deviations of the individual scores from the mean.
• variance it is the square root of the quotient of the total squared deviation of the mean and the total number of cases.\
• Primary sources are known as raw data which can be collected from original source like experimental test results, questionnaire survey, and observation.
• Secondary sources data that has already been collected by someone else such as books, reports, journals, magazines, and others.
• INTERVIEW

  This method of collecting data involves presentation of verbal reply from the respondents. This is done by asking questions to the respondents verbally
• Structured Interviews The researcher asks a standard set of questions and nothing more. The researcher follows a specific format with the same line of questioning.
• Face-to-face interviews This is the most frequently used quantitative research method and it can be done anywhere.
• Data collection refers to the process of gathering information.
• Telephone Interviews It is used when the researchers have no time to meet the respondents personally.
• Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing A form of personal interview where in the interviewer brings along laptop and directly enters the information or response of the participant to the database.
• QUESTIONNAIRE

   Its main purpose is to extract data from the respondents. It serves as a standard guide of the researchers in asking information from the respondents.
• Paper-pencil questionnaire This method is commonly used by the researchers. It can be sent to large number of respondents and save researcher’s time and money.
• Web-page questionnaire It is an internet based research where the respondents will receive an email which contains an address that would take them to a secure web-site to fill in the questionnaire.
• Self-administered questionnaire Usually distributed through mail, filled out and administered by respondents where they return this to the researchers via email. It can be used to elicit detailed information from respondents who might not be accessible
• OBSERVATIONS

  This is a way of collecting data by watching behavior, events or noting physical characteristics in a natural setting. This method is usually used in the situation where the subjects are unwilling or unable to provide the needed data through survey or interview.
• Overt Observation. An observation where the respondents are aware that they are being observed. 
• Covert Observation. An observation where the respondents are unaware that they are being observed
• Direct Observation. The observation occurs during the interaction.
• Indirect Observation. The observation occurs on the result of the interaction.
• TESTS

  This method provides a way to assess the subject's knowledge and capacity to apply knowledge to new situations.
• Norm-referenced test. Provides information on how the subject performs against a normative group.
• Criterion-referenced test. Determine whether or not the subjects have attained mastery of skills.
• Proficiency test. Provides an assessment against level of skills attainment, but includes standards for performance at varying levels of proficiency.
• Validity refers to a degree to which the instrument measures what it intends to measure. It involves collecting and analyzing data to assess the accuracy of an instrument.
• Face Validity. A subjective type of assessment. This is the simplest and easiest type of validity where the validator skim the surface of the instrument in order to form an opinion.
• Content Validity. It refers to the appropriateness of the content of an instrument. A type of validity that most often includes expert or people familiar with the construct being measured.
• Criterion Validity. This type of validity measures how well the relationship between a measure and an outcome.
• Convergent validity. Shows instruments are highly correlated with instruments measuring similar variables.
• Divergent validity. Shows the instrument is poorly correlated to instruments that measure different variables.
• Predictive validity. The instrument that has correlation with future criterion.
• Construct Validity. Defines how well a test measures what it claims to measure. It is used to know whether the operational definition of a construct aligns to the true theoretical meaning of a concept.
• Homogeneity. This means that the instrument measures one construct only.
• Convergence. The instrument measures construction similar to other instruments.
• Theory evidence. This is when behavior is similar to theoretical propositions of the construct measured in the instrument