Module 4

• Antibiotics, antifungal, and antiviral drugs utilize the concept of selective toxicity to eradicate infections.
• Low potassium can cause transient paralysis.
• Less risk if not used for more than 2 years.
• Trials in North America have been stopped.
• Hormonal contraceptives are a type of contraception that work by preventing ovulation, altering the lining of the uterus, or changing the levels of certain hormones.
• There are more antibiotics than antifungal and antiviral drugs.
• An Antibiotic is a chemical substance that suppresses the growth of bacteria and may eventually destroy them, both synthetic and non-synthetic compounds.
• Bacteriostatic antibiotics inhibit the growth and reproduction of bacteria.
• Bactericidal antibiotics directly kill the bacteria.
• The cell wall of bacterial cells is an outer rigid layer that completely surrounds the cytoplasmic membrane.
• The cell wall of bacterial cells contains a peptidoglycan layer, a cross-linked polymer of polysaccharides and polypeptides, which gives structural rigidity and maintains the cell's shape, integrity, and prevents cell lysis from high osmotic pressure.
• Bacteria are classified as either gram-negative or gram-positive bacteria.
• Gram-negative bacteria have a thin peptidoglycan layer and an outer membrane, while gram-positive bacteria have a thick cell wall and no outer membrane.
• Antibiotics are classified based on the spectrum of microorganisms they affect, either narrow spectrum antibiotics which are useful against particular species of microorganisms, or broad spectrum antibiotics which are effective against a wider range of microorganisms.
• Antimicrobials kill or inhibit the growth of microbes, also known as antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, and antiparasitic.
• Organisms become resistant through reuptake, mutation in the target of the drug, inactivation, or efflux pumps.
• Factors associated with antibiotic resistance include evolution of bacteria, clinical and environmental factors, and inappropriate use.
• During replication, bacteria mutate and evolve to have different properties, becoming resistant to antibiotics.
• Antifungal drugs are commonly used in people who take immunosuppressive drugs and only a few effective ones are available.
• The monthly ovarian cycle begins at the beginning of the menstrual cycle.
• Viruses are small, infectious agents that only multiply within living cells of other organisms (animals, plants, bacteria).
• Viruses need more antiviral drugs and these drugs target specific points in the life cycle of a virus to stop replication.
• Emergence of resistant strains is a longstanding issue for antimicrobials.
• Antiviral drugs include Oseltamivir (Brand name: Tamiflu), which treats influenza, and Acyclovir, which treats serious infections caused by HSV (herpes simplex virus) and infections due to varicella-zoster virus (VZV) (causes chicken pox and shingles).
• Long term effect of Acyclovir is to decrease the recurrence of genital herpes.
• Causes of antibiotic resistance include overprescription, reasons such as lack of diagnostic equipment, pressure from drug companies and patients, inappropriate use, and premature discontinuation of treatment.
• Antibiotics can also be classified based on the biochemical pathway they kill the bacteria by, such as cell wall synthesis inhibitors, DNA synthesis inhibitors, protein synthesis inhibitors, and metabolic inhibitors.
• Penicillin is a type of antibiotic produced by the Penicillium mold, which is used in the treatment of infections caused by gram-positive bacteria.
• Methicillin is a semisynthetic version of penicillin used in organisms that produce penicillinase and become resistant to penicillin G.
• Penicillinase is an enzyme that breaks down penicillin.
• Penicillin is closely related to D-alanyl-D-alanine, a compound needed to make new cell walls.
• Penicillin is selectively toxic to bacteria.
• Antibiotic combinations should also be used in TB treatment to reduce the risk of emergence of tubercle bacilli.
• The cell wall synthesis inhibitor class is Cephalosporins, which are chemically similar to penicillin's and are more resistant to penicillinase.
• Trimethoprim inhibits the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase, inhibiting folate from forming.
• Tetracyclines are used by those allergic to penicillin.
• The Protein Synthesis Inhibitor class is Tetracyclines, which are broad spectrum and many bacteria that were susceptible to their action have become resistant.
• Human cells have no cell wall, therefore penicillin has no effect.
• Gastrointestinal distress, including disturbance to healthy gut flora, is an adverse effect of penicillin.
• Disadvantages of using antibiotic combinations include unnecessary cost if one works good enough solo and more opportunity for