Part2

• Excretory or Urinary System ↳ pertaining to the organs of excretion and osmoregulation, such as the gills of fishes and the kidneys of fishes and other animals
• Reproductive System ↳ pertaining to the generative organs (ovaries and testes/gonads, and their ducts) which ensure the perpetuation of the species.
• Circulatory System ↳ Referring to the organs of circulation such as the heart and blood vessels, and the lymphatic system.
• Nervous System and Sense Organs ↳ pertaining to the brain and spinal cord, cranial and spinal nerves, the sympathetic system, and the sensory organs.
• Endocrine System ↳ referring to the glands of internal secretion (endocrine glands), that secrete substances called hormones which are responsible for the control of metabolism, growth, and reproduction.
• Head ↳ the part that lies ahead concentrated on or within the head are the special sense organs, for monitoring the environment.
• Trunk ↳ the part containing the body cavity, which houses the internal organs or viscera. ↳ The body wall, consisting of skin, muscles, and bones, must first be opened to expose the viscera.
• Tail ↳ the part that extends beyond the anus, or more commonly the vent, hence it is termed post anal.
• Appendages ↳ Two pairs of limbs - the fore and hind limbs: are usually appended to the trunk, although the limbs may be lost or vestigial in some vertebrates such as snakes and lizards.
• Most animals have three principal body axes: a longitudinal (anterior-posterior) axis, a dorsoventrally (up/down) axis, and a left-right axis.
• TERMS PERTAINING TO THE ASPECTS OF THE BODY:

  1.Anterior, cephalic, or cranial: the head end

  2. Posterior, or caudal: the tail end

  3. Median: the middle

  4. Dorsal: the back, upper-side, or upper-part

  5. Ventral: the belly, lower-side, or upperparts

  6. Lateral: right and Left sides
• TERMS INDICATIVE OF POSITION ARE:

  Central: the part of a system nearest the middle of the animal.

  2. Peripheral: the part nearest the surface.

  3. Proximal: near the main mass of the body, such as

  4. the upper arm.

  5. Distal: away from the main mass of the body, such as the forearm.

  6. Superior: above.

  7. Inferior: below.
• Transverse plane ↳ is defined by the conjunction of the leftright and dorsal-ventral axes.
• Frontal plane ↳ is defined by the conjunction of left-right and the longitudinal axes.
• . Longitudinal and Dorsal ↳ ventral axes define the sagittal plane. ↳ A cut in this plane is a sagittal section. ↳ A cut along the median axis is termed median sagittal section.
• The epidermis consists of several layers of cells:

  • Outermost layer, stratum corneum is thin, scaly, and made of dead, cornified cells.
  • Deeper layers of cells constituting stratum germinativum of the epidermis consists of columnar cells with prominent nucleus.
• The dermis is composed of two layers — an outer loose layer, stratum spongiosum and an inner, more compact layer, stratum compactum.
• the snout bears a pair of small openings, the external nares (singular, naris), or nostrils.
• Nostrils communicate with the nasal cavity, which contains the olfactory organ.
• The anuran trunk is short and thick, broad at the foremost end, bulging at the sides, and narrow at the hips. In the toad, there is present a pair of swellings at the shoulders.
• These are glandular masses known as parotid glands; their secretions are poisonous to people and other animals.
• In the hand may be distinguished a carpus or wrist, a metacarpus or palm, and digits or fingers, of which there are four.
• Each consists of three successive segments. forelimb or arm, the segment nearest the midline is known as the brachium or upper arm, 2. antebrachium or forearm and the last segment, the manus or hand.
• The sex of a frog may be determined externally by examining the thumb pads on the front feet.
• Frogs have a total of 57 bones in their body, while the adult human skeleton consists of 206 bones in most cases.
• The frog’s larger back legs consist of a femur as the strong, upper leg support, just like in humans.
• The back legs also consist of a fibula, as well as tibia; however, on the frog these two bones are fused together into one.
• The frog’s leg bones consist of a humerus, which is also, the strong part of human’s arms connecting the shoulder to the elbow.