biology

• Fat consists of a three carbon backbone attached to three fatty acids, which contain long hydrocarbon chains.
• Saturated Fat is fat in which all three fatty acid chains contain the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms.
• Unsaturated fat is fat in which one of the fatty acid chains does not contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms.
• Steroid is a lipid molecule in which the carbon skeleton forms four fused rings.
• Cholesterol is an essential molecule found in the membranes that surround your cells.
• Proteins are polymers constructed from a set of just 20 kinds of monomers called amino acids.
• Amino acids consists of a central carbon bonded to an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a hydrogen atom.
• Polypeptide is a chain of amino acids (many).
• Enzyme are specialized proteins designed to be a catalyst.
• Activation Energy is the amount of energy it takes to start a reaction.
• Catalyst are compounds that speed up chemical reactions.
• Substrate is a specific reactant acted upon by an enzyme.
• Active Site is the place where the substrate fits into a particular region of the enzyme.
• Main functions of the nervous system

  • Sensory input
  • Integration
  • Motor output
• Sensory input


  The PNS receives information from a stimulus
• Integration


  The CNS reads and interprets that stimuli
• Motor output


  The CNS orders the body to respond to the stimulus (by moving, etc.)
• Enhancing memory


  Tying memory or emotion to it or using many senses at once
• How a nerve sends a signal

  1. Stimulus is applied

  2. Threshold of neuron is reached, depolarization starts

  3. Signal travels down from dendrites to axon

  4. Signal goes past nodes and myelin sheath

  5. Signal goes down synaptic cleft

  6. Signal received by next neuron
• 3 defenses of the human body

  • Non-specific barriers
  • Internal Nonspecific Defense
  • Targeted defense
• Non-specific barriers


  Barriers do not distinguish between one invader and another; help to limit pathogens going through the skin into bloodstream
• Internal Nonspecific Defense


  Phagocytes and macrophage target incoming bacteria and attack them; invaders can trigger histamines, which means the blood vessels widen, causing inflammatory response; Macrophages consume the pathogens
• Targeted defense


  Targets specific types of cell such as cancer cells, pathogens, and certain chemicals; The response is longer but the effects are longer lasting
• How the body reacts to a foreign invader

  1. Body identifies antigens

  2. Uses innate immunity

  3. Uses acquired immunity

  4. Helper T cells communicate to B and T cells

  5. B cells produce antibodies and attach to pathogen

  6. T cells (cytotoxic) directly attack pathogens

  7. Retain information, creating memory cells
• Steps to creating a vaccine

  1. Determine what is causing the disease

  2. Isolate the disease causing agent

  3. Create antibodies

  4. Find a way to distribute these antibodies
• Robert Koch: germ theory that helped scientists to know that organisms cause diseases; used the experiment with the mouse and finding the causative agent
• Joseph Lister: found that materials in hospitals must be antiseptically cleaned with clean tools before performing surgeries; also helped bring about the germ theory
• Louis Pasteur: found that bacteria can be airborne, and for that not to happen, things must stay sealed; used experiment with the closed glass bottle and broken glass bottle
• Autoimmune diseases


  Lifelong diseases where the body starts to attack itself
• Why the body rejects organ donations

  The body sees that organ as a foreign invader since it isn't used to it or its components
• How to strengthen the immune system

  • Wash hands
  • Sleep for 8+ hours
  • Eat well
  • Manage stress
  • Have common sense in life situations
• Pros of eradicating a virus sample (Smallpox)

  • Can do more research on the disease
  • Can use it as a threat/weapon against other countries if needed
  • Can also lead to economic benefits way further down the line (not as much money going to treatment, people in hospitals, etc)
• Cons of eradicating a virus sample (Smallpox)

  • Risking leaking the disease and creating a pandemic
  • Other countries having a deadly weapon against others
• Why arteries are thicker than veins

  Arteries have thicker walls because they are carrying a higher pressure of blood since it comes directly from the heart and has to pump blood to the whole body from the heart
• Lymphatic system


  Helps clean the blood
• Average heart rate


  60-100 bpm
• When and why does the heart rate increase

  It can be because of stress, caffeine, or exercise. This is because the blood in the body is pumping faster and needs to deliver oxygen
• Parts of the blood

  • Erythrocytes (transport oxygen)
  • Buffy coat: WBC's (immune system) and plasma (takes nutrients and hormones to parts of the body that need them)
  • Platelets (aids in clotting blood)
• Types of cardiovascular disease

  • Coronary Artery Disease
  • Heart attack
  • Atherosclerosis
  • Hypertension
  • Stroke
• Coronary Artery Disease


  Caused by plaque buildup in the wall of the arteries that supply blood to the heart