AC 2.1

• what do physiological theories suggest

  suggests that physical traits of individuals are likely cause of criminal behaviour
• what did Lombroso argue

  in 1876 lombroso argued that criminals have facial features and bodily appearances that are different to non-criminals
• how did this theory develop

  after examining skulls of deceased criminals and facial features of prisoners - believed they were less evolved that non - criminals

  found common traits amongst those who has committed crime
• criminal features according to lombroso

  - jaw and jawline larger in criminals

  - eye sockets were larger

  - prominent eyebrow arches

  - higher cheek bones

  - nose shape differed - flatter noses in theives, pointed noses in murderers
• scientific explanation of criminality

  lombroso attempted to scientifically study criminality rather than rely upon subjective opinion
• What did Lombroso find to be a cause of crime?

  Physiology
• What type of explanation did Lombroso offer for criminal behavior?

  An explanation based on physiology
• How did Lombroso prove his theory about crime?

  Through correlations between features and criminality
• What is a criticism of Lombroso's work?

  It has not been proven by other scientists.
• How does the lack of scientific validation affect Lombroso's findings?


  It negatively impacts the reliability of his findings.
• What is an ethnocentric view?

  An ethnocentric view is the evaluation of other cultures based on the standards of one's own culture.
• What criticism has been made about Lombroso's work?

  Lombroso's work has been criticized for focusing on features that are not typical of Western cultures.
• How can Lombroso's work be perceived in terms of racial profiling?


  Lombroso's work can be seen as a form of racial profiling.
• what do genetic explanations focus on

  they focus on innate criminality - genes that make people act in a criminal way
• what do identical twins (monozygotic) twins have

  100% of the same genetic structure
• what happens if both identical twins commit criminal acts

  a genetic cause may be attributed to the behaviour
• what do non- identical twins not have

  they dont have 100% similarity in genetic structure and so less likely to behave in a similar way due to genes
• what do adoption studies used to establish

  correlation between criminality between those with similar genes- removes social explanations
• What did Lange find?

  he found that higher concordance levels of criminal behaviour in identical twins than non-identical twins
• what did lange find in his research

  10 out of 13 sets of identical twins both had criminal records compared to 2 out of 17 non- identical twins
• what did Christiansen find

  he found that higher rates of concordance in Danish identical twins (35%) compared to non-identical twins (13%)
• What did Ishikawa and Raine find regarding concordance rates in twin studies?

  There was a higher concordance rate in monozygotic twins than in dizygotic twins.
• What does a higher concordance rate in monozygotic twins suggest about criminality?

  It suggests that criminality has a genetic basis.
• What is a limitation of twin studies?

  It is hard to separate the effects of nature and nurture.
• Why is it difficult to separate nature and nurture in twin studies?

  Twins share genetic information as well as experiences, life events, and friendships.
• What is a limitation of twin studies?

  Concordance rates are never 100%.
• What does it imply if criminality was truly genetic in twin studies?

  Every twin with an identical twin sibling who commits crime should also commit crime.
• What did Hutchings and Mednick find? - adoption studies

  14,000 adopted children - many of the boys with criminal convictions also had biological parents with criminal convictions - there was a 20% risk of criminality if the boys had biological parents who had committed crime, and a 14,7% risk of criminality if the boys had adoptive parents who had committed crime
• strength to adoption studies

  adopted children grow up away from their biological parents, it is possible to investigate the influences of genetics without the influence of their exposure to criminal behaviours
• What is a limitation of adoption studies?

  Adoptive parents are often not similar to biological parents.
• How can the differences between adoptive and biological parents affect adoption studies?

  Nurture could still influence behaviors.
• another limitation to adoption studies

  psychological impacts of being adopted could lead individuals to display deviant and criminal behaviour
• what does brain abnormality also suggest - biological theory


  criminal behaviour is a result of abnormality in the brain
• what can abnormality in the brain also be connected to

  irregularities in the neurochemical activity in the brain of offenders
• what can damage to the pre-frontal cortex be an explanation of

  aggressive and impulsive behaviours
• what does the pre-frontal cortex control

  individuals emotions and damage to this area may impact on behavioural patterns
• what have the Use of PET scans by Raine found

  examining activity found damage and reduced activity in the pre-frontal cortex and convicted criminals
• what can impact the ability of the brain o regulate behaviours

  tumours and lesions
• what are dementia patients prone to

  aggressive outbursts as the disease affects the brain of individuals
• what was found in the 1920's relating to brain diseases

  encephalitis lethargia was linked to criminality in children