Psychology: Memory

• The three types of long-term memory are semantic, episodic, and procedural.
• what is coding?


  the way information is changed and stored
• what is capacity?

  amount of information that can be stored
• what is duration?

  length of time that information is held
• what did Baddeley find?

  STM is coded acoustically, LTM is coded semantically
• State factors that can affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimonies

  Misleading infoAnxiety
• Define eyewitness testimony

  Ability of eyewitness to remember & form an account of details of events e.g. accidents & crimeswhich they have observed
• Evaluate retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting

  + Supported by evidence - Godden & Baddeley, Carter & Cassady, increases validitiy- Effect of context IRL can be questioned - contexts have to be very diff. for effect to be seen e.g. land & underwater, most situations context isn't diff. enough so context doesn't explain much forgetting- Context effects vary in recall & recognition - Godden & Baddeley replicated study with recognition & context had no effect, limited explanation as it an only be applied to recall
• State the 4 conditions used in Carter & Cassady's research into state-dependent forgetting

  1 = Learned on drug, recalled on drug2 = Learned on drug, recalled not on drug3 = Learned not on drug, recalled on drug4 = Learned not on drug, recalled not on drug
• Outline research into state-dependent forgetting

  Carter & Cassady (1998) - ppts given anti-histamines to create diff. internal physiological state & learned word lists & asked to recalled themRecall for mismatched internal states was worse as cues at encoding absent
• Define state-dependent forgetting


  Forgetting which occurs because emotional or physical state at recall is different to that of time of learning
• State the 4 conditions used in Godden & Baddeley's research into context-dependent forgetting

  1 = learn on land, recall on land2 = learn on land, recall underwater3 = learn underwater, recall on land4 = learn underwater, recall underwater
• Outline research into context-dependent forgetting

  Godden & Baddeley (1975) Deep sea divers learnt word lists & recalled them in either diff. or same enviro from when they learnt the listsRecall was 40% for mismatched enviro as external cues available at learning were diff to ones at recall leading to retrieval failure
• Define context-dependent forgetting


  Forgetting which occurs because enviro at recall is different to that of time of learning
• Evaluate the encoding specificity principle

  Not testable - can't establish whether or not cue has been encoded, argument for role of cues is circularTherefore can't be certain forgetting is due to retrieval failure
• Define encoding specificity principle


  Tulving - Memory is most effective when info that was present at time of coding is also present at time of retrieval
• Define cue

  Trigger of info that allows us to access a memory
• Define retrieval failure

  Forgetting due to absence of correct retrieval cues/triggers for recall
• Explain how interference can be overcome by using cues

  Tulving & Psotka (1971) - gave ppts word lists, recall fell with each new list but when given cues recall rose to 70%, Inference just causes temporary loss of access to memories (not predicted by theory)
• Outline a drug study that supports interference as an explanation for forgetting


  Coenen & Luijtelaar (1997) - recall was better with taking diazepam before learning new material as the drug stopped new info reaching brain areas that process memories so it couldn't retroactively interfere with stored info
• Outline real life studies that support interference as an explanation for forgetting

  Baddeley & Hitch (1977) - asked rugby players to recall names of teams they have played, accurate recall didn't depend on how long ago matches took place but on no. of games played since that timeBurke & Skrull 1988 - ppts had difficult recalling mag adverts that were similar
• Evaluate research into retroactive interference theory

  High control - control over confounding variables, more confidence in conclusionArtificial task - different to what we try to remember in everyday life, lacks external validity
• Outline research into retroactive interference theory

  McGeoch & McDonald 1931 - ppts learned list of 10 words until they could recall with 100% accuracy, then given new list to learn, similar lists produced worse recall
• Evaluate interference as an explanation for forgetting

  + Supported by lab studies - McGeoch & McDonald (1931), list of 10 wordsHOWEVER...validity issues & artificial tasks+ Supported by real life studies - Baddeley & Hitch (1977), rugby+ Supported by drug studies - Coenen & Luijtelaar (1997), diazepamInterference can be overcome by using cues (not predicted by theory) - Tulving & Psotka
• Define retroactive interference

  Newer memories disrupt recall of older memories
• Define proactive interference

  Older memories disrupt recall of newer memories
• Name two types of interference

  proactiveretroactive
• Define interference


  One memory disrupts ability to recall anotherResulting in forgetting or distortion of memories
• Name explanations for forgetting in LTM

  Proactive & retroactive interferenceRetrieval failure
• Outline the lack of clarity over the CE

  Baddeley (2003) stated CE was most important component but least understood - needs to be more than just attention, some believe it has separate components
• Outline brain scan evidence that supports the working memory model

  Braver (1997) - gave ppts task that involved CE while they were having brain scan, greater activity in left prefrontal cortex as task became harder as demands for CE increased
• Evaluate the dual task performance studies

  - Artificial task - not like everyday WM tasks, challenges external validity
• Outline the dual task performance studies

  Baddeley (1975) - ppts found it more difficult to carry out two visual tasks (both tasks compete for same subsystem) than doing a visual & verbal task (no competition) at same time,Therefore VSS and PL must be separate
• Evaluate clinical evidence that supports the working memory model

  - Other variables - KF could have had other impairments which explained poor memory- Unique case - not reliable & generalisable
• Outline clinical evidence that supports the working memory model

  Shallice & Warrington, KF - KF had poor STM ability due to damage, couldn't process verbal info but could process visual info, supports separate existence of visual & acoustic stores
• Evaluate the working memory model

  + Provides more detail than MMS model+ Supported by clinical evidence - KF+ Dual task performance studies support VSS+ Supported by brain scanning - Braver (1997)- Lack of clarity over CE - hasn't been fully explained challenging integrity of model
• State the capacity of the episodic buffer

  Limited - 4 chunks
• Describe encoding in the episodic buffer

  Flexible as it integrates visual, spatial & verbal info processed by other stores
• Define episodic buffer

  Sub-system of WM that temporarily stores info, maintains time sequencing & links WM to LTM
• Define inner scribe

  Sub-division of VSS that records arrangement of objects in visual fields