external

• the 4 factors;

  • feminism
  • changes in the family
  • changes in women’s employment
  • changing girl ambitions
• feminism

  • feminist movement has raised self-esteem and motivated women
  • rise of the feminist movement meant that women were no longer bound to the “mother/housewife” role
• changes in the family;

  • traditional “female” socialisation is more suited to education (bedroom culture), girls are more likely to grow up reading, whilst boys play video games
  • more lone-parent matrifocal households meant girls had a role model
• changes in employment;

  • Mitsos and Browne highlighted that the growing economy has created more “feminised” careers opportunities for women, eg. healthcare, hospitality, teaching.
  • the Equal Pay act has opened up more opportunities for women
  • these changes have encouraged girls to see themselves as being more than housewives, having greater career choices and financial independence
• changing ambitions;

  • there is a decline in traditional gender roles
  • Genshiem et al highlight that individualisation is highly regarded in a contemporary society, it is a way to gain status and recognition
  • in order to achieve the desired goals of independence and self-sufficiency, more girls started to recognise the importance of having an education
• The success of feminism has challenged the notion that destined to become housewives and essentially fulfil Parson's expressive role
• Law changes such as The Abortion Act, Divorce Reform Act (1969) and The Sex Discrimination Act (1975) have improved women's rights and raised girls' expectations of what's to come after education.
• Sharpe conducted a longitudinal study on girls' ambitions in 1976 and found that many girls prioritised finding love, marriage and children over the prospect of having a career. This contrasted the girls' who she later studied in 1994 who were found to prioritise getting an education, independence and then finally a relationship.
• Beck and Giddens argue that the influence that traditional gender roles and positions have on us has declined overtime. Women used to adhere to a standard biography in which they were expected to get married, have children and cater to their families. Instead, we have entered a late modernist phase of society in which women follow a 'DIY Biography' that allows them to make their own choices, free from stigmatisation.
• McRobbie studied magazines in the 1970s as a source of media and found that great emphasis was placed on the prospect of getting married and not being 'left on the shelf'. In today's society however, women's priorities have shifted, this is reflected in the media with how there is an increase in positive female role models showcased in the media.
• Changes in the family

  • An increase in divorce rates may illustrate to girls that it is unwise to be financially dependent on a man, thus encouraging girls to break the glass ceiling to high-paying and well respected jobs
  • Increase in lone-parent female-headed families has brought about an increase in strong female role models, teaching girls that they too can fulfil the instrumental, breadwinner role
• Changes in Employment

  • The Equal Pay Act and The Sex Discrimination act outlawed unequal pay for work of equal value, and discrimination against women at the workplace. This means more women are breaking the glass ceiling to high-level professional and managerial roles
  • The service sector of the job market is ever-growing, this has offered women with many more opportunities to seek flexible part-time jobs
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  Beck et al link the trend of increased female employment to individualisation in modern society, independence is highly valued in today's society more than it was in the past. Women are now in pursuit of careers that promote economic self-sufficiency and recognition.
• Women now recognise that in order to access such careers they must invest in long periods of education in order to attain high qualifications. This is supported by Fuller, who found that educational success has become a central aspect of identity, as they see themselves as creators of their own futures with an individualised sense of self.
• Biggart found that the working class are disadvantaged on the job market, and so many women view motherhood as the only viable option