bio

• Carbohydrates are macromolecules that serve as a source of energy and provide structural support.
• Disaccharides are 2 monosaccharides bound by a glycosidic bond.
• Fats consist of three fatty acids attached to one molecule of glycerol through ester bonds.
• Glycosidic bonds are formed by a dehydration reaction connecting 2 hydroxyl groups.
• An example of a disaccharide is sucrose. It is formed by a glycosidic bond between a glucose and fructose molecule.
• Hydroxyl groups are OH groups
• Oligosaccharides are made up of 3-10 monosaccharides bound by glycosidic bonds. They are the most common membrane surface markers and they form glycolipids and glycoproteins.
• Polysaccharides are many monosaccharides bound by glycosidic bonds. They store energy.
• There are 2 possible glucose isomers; alpha and beta. We have an enzyme to digest alpha-glucose glycosidic bond but not beta-glucose.
• An example of alpha-glucose is starch. An example of beta-glucose is cellulose.
• Cellular respiration is harvesting energy from the monosaccharide glucose.
• Breaking C-H bonds releases a lot of energy. Oxygen picks up negative H ions to form water.
• When glucose is going through oxidation it is losing hydrogens and electrons.
• When oxygen is undergoing reduction it is gaining hydrogens and electrons.
• G is free energy. Change in G is how much energy is being gained or lost. If more energy is lost then change in G is negative.
• If we give electrons directly to oxygen. Cell would burn. To avoid this, electrons lose energy little by little.
• To avoid cell combustion, intermediate electron carriers are used.
• There are some intermediate electron carriers that are integral to the mitochondrial membrane while others just float around.
• All intermediate electron carriers are reversibly oxidized and reduced.
• NAD/NADH is the most important electron carrier.
• NAD oxidizes, it takes electrons.
• NADH reduces, it loses electrons.
• NAD/NADH works as a cofactor.
• An enzyme will take an energy rich molecule and NAD. The NAD will gain 2 electrons and 1 proton to form NADH.
• FAD/FADH2 is the less efficient electron carrier.
• FAD will gain 2 hydrogens and 2 electrons to form FADH2
• Aerobic respiration uses oxygen (O2).
• Anaerobic respiration is the breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen. It uses various inorganic molecules like sulfate and nitrate as the final electron acceptors as the end of the train.
• ATP is made up of 1 ribonucleotide and 3 phosphate groups.
• ATP+H2O=Energy+ADP+Pi .
• Energy from ATP hydrolysis drives anabolism and other endergonic processes.
• To make ATP, ADP and oxidative phosphorylation is done.
• ADP phosphorylation is when P is transferred from an organic molecule to ADP to make ATP. Several enzymes can do this.
• Oxidative phosphorylation transfers Pi to ADP. Only ATP synthesis does this.
• The 4 steps in making ATP are Glycolysis, Pyruvate Oxidation, Kreb's Cycle and the Electron Transport Chain.
• Glycolysis turns 6 carbons into 2 Pyruvate (3 carbons) and 2 water.
• Glycolysis is the only step done in cytoplasm not mitochondria.
• 1Glucose+2ATP+2NAD=2Pyruvate+4ATP+2NADH .
• Without mitochondria, glycolysis is the only way to make ATP.
• Glycolysis doesn't need oxygen to work.