ST#2

• Sandstone, shale, and carbonates represent common materials in the sedimentary cover of continents and ocean basins
• Criteria for a rock-forming mineral


  • Most abundant in Earth’s crust
  • One of the original minerals present at the time of crustal rock’s formation
  • An important mineral in determining classification of rocks
• Physical properties of minerals


  • Crystal Form and Habit
  • Cleavage and Fracture - breakage along planes of weakness(C: smooth, F:rough surface)
  • Luster - reflection of light
  • Color and Streak - color in powdered form
  • Hardness - strength of chemical bonds
  • Specific Gravity - measurement of density
  • Magnetism
  • Taste (e.g., halite is salty)
  • Effervescence – reaction to acid
  • Feel (e.g., talc is greasy)
• Classification of Minerals based on Composition


  1. SILICATES - silicon-oxygen tetrahedrons

  2. OXIDES - metal cations bonded to oxygen anions

  3. SULFIDES - metal cations bonded to sulfides

  4. SULFATES - metal cations bonded to SO4

  5. HALIDES - halogen ions (chlorine & flourine)

  6. CARBONATES - carbonic ions

  7. NATIVE METALS - single metal (copper/gold)
• Basalt and gabbro account for most of the rock in oceanic crust; Granite (rhyolite) and andesite (diorite) represent abundant rock types of continental crust
• A mineral is...


  a natural inorganic solid with a definite chemical composition and structure
• General Characteristics of a mineral


  • Naturally occurring
  • Solid
  • Inorganic
  • Definite chemical composition
  • Ordered internal structure
• Sedimentary rocks


  • Formed from sediments through compaction and cementation(lithification)
  • Crumbly; layered
  • Sedentarius - sitting
• Rocks


  Naturally occurring solid mass that is normally made of minerals

  • examples: Kapurpurawan(Ilocos), Stonehenge(England), Nakabuang Arc(Batanes), Biri(NSamar), El Nido(palawan), & Zaragoza(siargao)
• Magma


  Molten rock within the earth
• 3 types of rocks

  1.Igneous

  • Crystalline & Pyroclastic

  2. Sedimentary

  • Lithification - sediments are compacted and cemented

  3. Metamorphic

  • Foliated and Non-Foliated Rocks
  • Recrystallization - molecules rearrange themselves to form new crystal structures without undergoing melting
• Igneous Rocks


  • Formed from magma and lava that has cooled and hardened
  • Crystalline(cooled magma/lava) or Pyroclastic(Volcanic Ash)
  • Hard; No layers
• Metamorphic Rocks


  • Pre-existing rocks that have been altered by heat and pressure
  • Undergoes metamorphism(to change form)
  • Relatively Hard; may or may not have layers
• Formation of Igneous Rocks


  • (C)Extrusive/Volcanic(magma comes out as lava and are fine grained as a result of cooling rapidly) and Intrusive/Plutonic Igneous Rocks(magma cools beneath and are coarse grained as a result of cooling slowly)
  • (P) Result of Lithification of erupted volcanic materials
• Formation of Sedimentary Rock


  • Erosion and Transportation(sediments end up in the water and settle down)
  • Deposition(more sediments are added to newly formed layers)
  • Compaction(release of moisture to compact the layers)
  • Cementation(salt crystals glue the layers to form more rocks)
• Formation of Metamorphic Rocks


  • (F)Mineral grains are arranged in parallel layers, its altering factor is pressure, and is a result of Regional Metamorphism(due to tectonic processes)
  • (NF)Minerals are not arranged in plains or bands, its altering factor is heat, and is a result of Contact Metamorphism(due to recrystallization or changing minerals in rocks)
• Ore deposit


  Denotes a mineral deposit of sufficient extent and concentration to invite exploitation. It is an economic term
• Types of Surface Mining


  1. Dredging: Process of mining materials from the bottom of bodies of water
  2. Strip mining: Removal of strip of soil above the desired deposit
  3. Placer mining: Mining of stream bed deposits for minerals
• Types of Mining


  Surface Mining and Underground Mining – utilized to extract mineral ores that are close to the Earth’s surface
• Materials used in electronic devices


  • TIN
  • TUNGSTEN
  • GALLIUM
  • GOLD
• Minerals are extracted through Mining


  The process of extracting useful minerals from the surface of the earth including seas
• Mineral Processing


  Process of extracting minerals from ore:

  Exploration - finding high quality ore

  Drilling and blasting - getting ore out of the ground

  Crushing and Milling - getting mineral out of the ore

  Separation - separating mineral from rock waste

  Refining - cleaning mineral/metal

  Distribution - distribution to where needed
• Minerals are found through exploration 


  sequence of activities which aims to discover deposits of rocks and minerals that can be used to meet the resource needs of society

  • Undergoes Project Design(Initial stage and map, government permits, acceptability of the project, budget, etc. occurs) and Field Exploration(physical in selected area)
• Ore


  Naturally occurring materials that can be mined(Rocks and Minerals)