Section A

• Reasons for Rural-Urban Migration

  Rural workers migrate into the city for better work opportunities

  International working migrants migrate to the city to fill gaps in employment for skilled roles
• Reasons for Urban-Rural Migration

  Retiring couples migrate out the city to live a quieter life

  New families migrate out of the city to find more affordable houses and a more pleasant lifestyle.
• Rural Urban fringe

  the boundary zone outside the urban area proper where rural and urban land uses intermix
• Disadvantages of TNCs

  Paid wages tend to be lower than the home country of the TNC

  Powerful TNCs can exert pressure

  Being able to withdraw from a country if circumstances change
• Advantages and disadvantages of multicultural cities

  Advantages

  • Skilled migrants can fill gaps in the economy and services
  • Multicultural events become very popular in some cities

  Disadvantage

  • More people moving to the city will make job opportunities more rare therefore unemployment may rise
  • In some cities, ethnic groups are segregated and therefore their cultures aren't shared
• Building on Greenfield Land


  Advantages

  • Never been built on meaning no additional costs to remove rubble or waste
  • Cheaper land prices as Greenfields tend to be further from the city centre

  Disadvantages

  • Habitats are destroyed and wildlife is pushed away from the city
  • The city may grow uncontrollably (urban sprawl) which can result in residents being too far to commute to the centre
• Building on Brownfield Land

  Advantages

  • Land is used rather than being left derelict which can become a target for crime
  • Housing developments closer to the city centre so developers can charge more for the houses that they build

  Disadvantages

  • Expensive to remove all waste and demolish any existing buildings
  • To compensate for the high cost processing of building, housing tends to be unaffordable and high-value apartments
• How can a city be more sustainable?

  Social

  • Reduce air pollution meaning less asthma
  • Local residents have a say in political decisions

  Economic

  • Increased taxes and fines for polluting which can be invested back into the city
  • Create jobs and businesses in sustainable technology

  Environmental

  • Renewable energy sources used
  • Building green open space
• Issues with Urbanisation


  Healthcare and Education - As cities' populations increase the demand for doctors and dentists also increases

  Squatter Settlements - Many migrants must settle for make-shift housing called squatter settlements

  Unemployment - Migrants coming to the city aren't guaranteed a job instead they result to informal work

  Air Pollution - As the no of people increase, the no of cars and buses on the road increases

  Waste - At higher populations, more volume of waste is needed to be dealt with, if it isn't properly collected/managed the city can quickly deteriorate