cancer;benign and maligant

• Benign – a tumour that is not cancerous, it will not invade nearby tissue or spread around the body
• Lesion – before identifying what a mass density is, it may be referred to as a lesion, eg. as seen on an ultrasound and unknown
• Malignant – a tumour that is cancerous, it can invade nearby tissue and spread around the body
• In general cancer is caused by a failure of a cell and a mutation which then develops into a tumour or the bone marrow in cases of leukaemia.
• Genes contain information to make proteins, and proteins control many important functions like cell growth. 

  Genetic mutations can change how proteins function. 

  Some types of genetic mutations change proteins in ways that cause healthy cells to become cancerous.
• Metastasis: If the cancer has spread (metastasized) to more distant organs and tissues
• Lymph nodes: Whether or not the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes and if so, how many
• • Tumour grade gives an indication of how quickly the cancer cells are likely to grow and spread. The higher the grade, the more aggressive the cancer likely is.
• Tumour size and the extent to which it has spread
• Lymph nodes filter substances that travel through the lymphatic fluid, and they contain lymphocytes (white blood cells) that help the body fight infection and disease.

  Cancer cells can end up in lymph nodes.
• Lymph node-positive means at least one axillary lymph node contains cancer. Prognosis is better when cancer has not spread to the lymph nodes.
• Breast cancer is a disorder when the cells in the breast proliferate (rapidly increasing) uncontrollably.

  There are various types of breast cancer. 

  The type of breast cancer is determined by which breast cells turn malignant; glandular tissue, fibrous connective tissue, and fatty breast tissue
• Invasive cancer means the cancer cells have broken out of the lobule where they began and have the potential to spread to the lymph nodes and other areas of the body. 

  Invasive breast cancer means that the cancer cells have grown through the lining of the ducts into the surrounding breast tissue.
• Depending on the size and other characteristics of the breast cancer, means there may be a need to have one to 10 or more lymph nodes removed which has also got cancer cells in.
• Stage 0 – Abnormal cells are located in the duct lining or sections of the breast. This is non-invasive cancer.

  Stage 1 – tumour is small (2cm) and in one area

  Stage 2 –the cancer is larger (3-4cm) and has grown into nearby tissues or lymph nodes.

  Stage 3 – the cancer is larger and may have spread to the surrounding tissues and/or the lymph nodes

  Stage 4 – the cancer is larger and has spread to other parts of the body and the lymph nodes
• Breast-conserving surgery (lumpectomy) removes just the cancerous area and a small amount of surrounding normal tissue

  Mastectomy involves removing the entire breast.
• The main advantage of a lumpectomy is that it can preserve much of the appearance and sensation of your breast. It is less invasive surgery, so recovery time is shorter and easier than a mastectomy.

  Disadvantages are 5-7 weeks of radiation therapy afterwards and potential a local reoccurrence.
• Radiation therapy for breast cancer uses high-energy X-rays, protons or other particles to kill cancer cells. Rapidly growing cells, such as cancer cells, are more susceptible to the effects of radiation therapy than are normal cells. The X-rays or particles are painless and invisible
• Removal of the whole breast means a patient might feel more confident the cancer won't come back. Plus, there won’t be a need radiotherapy after the surgery. 

  If a person has a large tumour, more than one tumour, history of chest radiation (before age 30) or are pregnant, bilateral (double) mastectomy should be considered
• Some monoclonal antibodies (MABs) are a type of immunotherapy, they work by triggering the immune system and helping it to attack cancer. 

  Some MABs work in a more targeted way. For example, they can block signals that tell cancer cells to divide. You can read more about this in our information about targeted cancer drugs.
• Chemotherapy is a common treatment for breast cancer. It uses anti-cancer (cytotoxic) drugs to destroy cancer cells.

  The drugs circulate throughout the body in the bloodstream. 

  They work by disrupting the growth of cancer cells in a cycle of treatment
• The shock, the fear, the adjustment and learning to think more realistically can be addressed as part of cancer treatment through specialist counselling.

  This could be suitable for an individual or appropriate for couple or family counselling.

  The partner of a patient can also access counselling funded by charity Macmillan's
• risk factors

  • Most breast cancers occur in women over 50 and it is less common                                      in women under 40.
  • Family history and inherited genes.
  • X–rays and radiotherapy (ionising radiation) Diabetes.
  • Dense breast tissue.
  • Benign breast disease
• Thyroid cancer is a rare type of cancer that affects the thyroid gland.

  The thyroid gland consists of 2 lobes located on either side of the windpipe. Its main purpose is to release hormones which effect many different functions of the body.
• Thyroidectomy is a surgical procedure that completely removes the thyroid gland.

  A thyroid lobectomy is the partial removal.

  Afterwards medication usually secreted by the thyroid must be taken as prescribed for the rest of a patients life, blood tests help balance this.
• Radioactive Iodine treatment will only affect all thyroid cells, no matter where they are located in the body.

  The Iodine will damage the cancerous cells, preventing them from growing without affecting other cells in the body.
• Every cancer treatment can cause side effects or changes to the body and hormones that affect how you feel. 

  For many reasons, people do not experience the same side effects even when they are given the same treatment for the same type of cancer. This can make it hard to predict how you will feel during treatment, the unknown.

  Counselling can help a patient deal with the rollercoaster of feelings.
• Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) is a type of blood cancer that affects white blood cells, lymphocytes. 

  This is a lymphatic system cancer.

  More than 6 in 10 people diagnosed with NHL today are predicted to survive their disease
• Symptoms of NHL;

  • Swollen lymph nodes in your neck, armpits or groin.
  • Abdominal pain or swelling.
  • Chest pain, coughing or trouble breathing.
  • Persistent fatigue.
  • Fever.
  • Night sweats.

  Unexplained weight loss.
• How non-Hodgkin lymphoma is diagnosed;

  The only way to confirm a diagnosis of non-Hodgkin lymphoma is by carrying out a biopsy. 

  This is a minor surgical procedure where a sample of affected lymph node tissue is removed and studied in a laboratory.
• A radiation field is the area of the body marked to receive the radiation therapy. To clearly outline the radiation field the skin is marked with tiny ink dots called tattoos. 

  This ensures that the appropriate area is targeted for the radiation and that the exact same area is treated each time.
• Adult acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) is a type of cancer in which the bone marrow makes a large number of abnormal blood cells. 

  Leukaemia may affect red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (lymphocytes) and platelets/fibrin to clot.
• Rapid growth of immature cancerous cells take over the space in the bone marrow cavity.

  Healthy cells are literally squished out the way and are unable to produce necessary erythrocytes, lymphocytes, platelets and fibrin.
• Symptoms;

  • skin looking pale or "washed out"
  • tiredness.
  • breathlessness.
  • losing weight without trying.
  • frequent infections.
  • having a high temperature, and feeling hot or shivery (fever)
  • night sweats.
  • unusual and frequent bleeding, such as bleeding gums or nosebleeds
• Step 1 – kill of rogue cancer cells and damage stem cells responsible for producing these.

  Step 2 – replace damaged stem cells with healthy ones from a donor so they can get on making red/white healthy cells and platelets
• More than 90% of testicular cancer start in the germ cells, which are cells in the testicles and develop into sperm. 

  This type of cancer is known as testicular germ cell cancer.

  Germ cells create immature sperm for reproduction
• Testicular symptoms include:

  • a lump or swelling in part of one testicle
  • a testicle that gets bigger
  • a heavy scrotum
  • discomfort or pain in your testicle or scrotum

  The average age at diagnosis is 33, and testicular cancer is the most common cancer among men aged 15 to 35
• The first treatment option for all cases of testicular cancer, whatever the stage, is to surgically remove the affected testicle (an orchidectomy).
• Counselling is not recommended for men with testicular cancer as a matter of course. Some men said that they thought it might do more harm than good. 

  However, some people find it very helpful to talk to someone who is especially trained to listen, they wished they had known that counsellors were available in the hospital.
• risk factors of testicle cancer

  an undescended testicle

  race and ethnicity

  early onset of puberty and body size

  family history of testicle cancer

  abnormal development of testicles