World Englishes

• English is spoken by an estimated 1.35 billion people – almost 20% of the world
• The English used worldwide differs in terms of vocab, pronounciation, grammar etc.
• Lingua Franca


  A language used as a common language between speakers whose native languages are different
• Origins of English


  1. Germanic tribes invaded Britain and Old English was formed

  2. Normans invaded Britain, bringing a form of French that helped shape Middle English

  3. Formation of Modern English due to modern printing and colonialism in the 16th century

  4. British colonisation and imperialism spread English around the world

  5. USA's prominence helped spread English further around the world

  6. English chosen as one of the world's official working languages

  7. USA's cultural prominence helped spread English

  8. The invention of the internet spread English
• Today, English is recognised as an official language in 67 different countries
• Pidgin


  A language variety that arises when people who do not speak the same native language communicate with each other, typically a simplified form of a language
• Creole


  A more complex language with its own syntax and grammar that develops from a pidgin
• Common English-based creoles


  • Jamaican Patois
  • Gullah
  • Singlish
• Kachru's 'world Englishes'


  • Inner circle - where English is a first language, providing norms
  • Outer circle - countries which were once British colonies where English isn't the first language but may be the 'working language'
  • Expanding circle - English is used as a foreign language but the country has no immediate historical ties to English
• Strevens' world map of Englishes shows that all varieties of English can be traced back to either British English or American English
• British English


  • Split into dialects, with 'received pronounciation' considered 'standard English'
  • Others include geordie, scouse etc.
• American English


  • Rhotic accent (r is pronounced) unlike British English
  • Many British English words have French roots but other languages like Spanish have influenced American English
  • More likely to drop suffixes
  • Tends to use infinitive in compound nouns whereas British English uses gerund
• South Asian English


  • Introduced in 17th century through colonisation
  • English is used in India in education and government
  • 125 million Indians speak English – second largest English speaking country
  • Hinglish – mix of English and Hindi
• African English


  • Encompasses diverse forms spoken across the continent
  • 27 African countries recognize English officially
  • West African Pidgin English originated as a trade language
  • South African English has evolved since the British arrival in 1795
  • Linguistic tapestry shaped by colonization, immigration, and religion
• African-American Vernacular English (AAVE)


  • A unique variety of English spoken predominantly by black Americans, characterized by distinct linguistic structures
  • Historically stigmatized as a 'low-prestige dialect'
• Australian English


  • Evolved from British colonization, incorporating elements from both British and American English
  • Distinctive features in vocabulary and accent, reflecting the need for new terms to describe Australia's unique flora and fauna
  • Non-rhotic, often dropping the /r/ sound
  • Alters the 'long I' (/aɪ/) to an 'oi' (/ɔɪ/) sound
• An increasing number of people are using English as a lingua franca (a common language) as a tool for communication
• Individuals using ELF are no longer necessarily looking towards the inner and outer circle countries for their norms, and this is paving the way for new varieties of English, such as Vinglish (Vietnamese English) and Chinglish (Chinese English)
• Modiano's linguistic imperialism


  English is often imposed on non-English speaking societies, leading to linguistic inequality
• Canagarajah's code-meshing


  The blending of linguistic codes within World Englishes acknowledging the fluidity and hybridity of language use
• David Crystal


  • Prominent British linguist who suggests that English is no longer solely the language of its native speakers but has become a means of global communication and an exceedingly popular lingua franca
• Graddol


  • British linguist who suggests that the English language is evolving rapidly and dynamically, and could in fact lose momentum, in contrast to the global juggernaut it is today
• McArthur


  • Linguist who suggests that English is evolving rapidly and dynamically and has a place on the global scale unlike that of any other language, with multiple variants such as 'Singlish' emerging worldwide
• Ostler suggests English will decline and technology will intervene so we can speak and write in whatever language we choose, considering modern factors like technology but ignoring how most technology such as global media is dominated by English-speaking countries, thus being a flawed view
• Saraceni suggests English has relocated, as it is problematic to assume some Englishes are less important and other Englishes can do what they want with the language, considering the expanse of English but totally ignoring how most world Englishes aren't used as only languages in the countries, thus don't hold the same importance, thus is an overly generalised view of world Englishes
• McArthur's "wheel model"


  • Has an idealized central variety called "World Standard English," which is best represented by "written international English"
  • The next circle is made of regional standards or standards that are emerging
  • The outer layer consists of localized varieties which may have similarities with the regional standards or emerging standards
  • Conflates ENL, ESL and EFL in the second circle
  • Misses the multitude of Englishes in Europe in the second circle
  • Includes pidgins, creoles and L2 English in the outside layer
• It is problematic to assume some Englishes are less important and other Englishes can do what they want with the language, considering the expanse of English but totally ignoring how most world Englishes aren't used as only languages in the countries, thus don't hold the same importance, thus is an overly generalised view of world Englishes
• McArthur's "wheel model"


  • Has an idealized central variety called "World Standard English," which is best represented by "written international English"
  • The next circle is made of regional standards or standards that are emerging
  • The outer layer consists of localized varieties which may have similarities with the regional standards or emerging standards
• Although the model is neat, it raises several problems
• Firstly, the three different types of English — ENL, ESL and EFL, are conflated in the second circle
• Secondly, the multitude of Englishes in Europe is also missing in this layer
• Finally, the outside layer includes pidgins, creoles and L2 Englishes
• Most scholars would argue that English pidgins and creoles do not belong to one family: rather they have overlapping multiple memberships
• English's dominance as a global language, stemming from historical, political, and cultural factors, is a significant phenomenon shaping contemporary society and communication worldwide
• The spread of English has led to linguistic borrowing and adaptation in various languages, influencing vocabulary, grammar, and syntax on a global scale
• Efforts to resist English's dominance, such as linguistic commissions and language preservation initiatives, highlight the tension between globalization and the preservation of cultural and linguistic diversity
• English's influence extends beyond lexical borrowing to literary styles and storytelling, leading to the emergence of an international vernacular that homogenizes narrative forms across cultures
• The transformation of English from a dominant language to a hypercentral one has redefined global linguistic dynamics, positioning it as the connector among supercentral languages
• Countries around the world, from Rwanda to South Sudan to China, have adopted English as an official language, reflecting aspirations for global integration and socioeconomic advancement
• The perceived benefits of English proficiency, such as improved social mobility and access to global opportunities, have led to phenomena like the "English frenzy" in countries like South Korea, where English proficiency is highly valued