CPT Unit 2

• Soap


  A salt high in fatty acid made from oil, fats and caustic alkali (KOH or NaOH) through saponification
• Fatty acids in soap

  • Oleic (animal and veg)
  • Stearic (animal and plant fats)
  • Palmitic (palm and palm kernel oil)
  • Lauric (coconut and palm)
  • Myristic (palm oil, coconut oil and butter fats)
• Oils and fats in soap

  • Moisturizing properties
  • Customizable texture and hardness
  • Enhanced lather quality
• Alkali in soap


  • Enables saponification
  • Customization of soap type
  • Influence on soap pH
  • Control of soap properties
• Additives in soap


  • Enhanced skin benefits
  • Improved aesthetics and texture
  • Fragrance and aroma therapy
• Color in soap


  • Aesthetic enhancement
  • Product differentiation
• Water in soap


  • Facilitates saponification process
  • Controls soap texture
  • Temperature regulation
  • Solvent for additives
• Preservatives in soap


  • Extended shelf life
  • Safety and hygiene
  • Maintains product integrity
• Chemical ingredients in detergents

  • Acids-bases
  • Bleaching agents, activators and stabilisers
  • Builders, complexing agents and ion exchangers
  • Corrosion inhibitors
  • Dyes
  • Dye transfer inhibitors
  • Enzymes
  • Fluorescent whitening agents
  • Foam regulators
  • Formulation aids
  • Soil repellents/anti-redeposition agents
  • Solvents
• Soap production


  1. Saponification

  2. Glycerin removal

  3. Soap purification

  4. Refining
• Soap production methods


  • Cold processing
  • Hot processing
  • Semi-boiling processing
• Cold processing of soap

  A method of making soap without the use of heat, involving combining oils and lye to create saponification
• Cold processing of soap

  1. Combining oils and lye

  2. Vigorous agitation for 2 hours

  3. Adding dyes, perfumes, and additives

  4. Pouring into cooling frames

  5. Removing and cutting into chunks
• Semi-boiled processing of soap

  A method that saponifies to a certain extent but never reaches the boiling point, using a heated coil to heat the saponification mixture to 70-90°C
• Hot/Full boiled processing of soap


  A method that uses heat to speed up the saponification, with the reactors boiled at least once and the glycerol recovered
• Soap molecule


  Has a hydrophobic hydrocarbon chain and a hydrophilic carboxylate end
• Removing dirt using soap

  1. Soap molecules form micelles that trap fats

  2. Micelles are dispersed into the water and removed from the dirt surface
• Surfactants


  Surface active agents that reduce the surface tension of water, allowing it to better wet surfaces and dissolve dirt and oily stains
• Soaps in hard water

  The Ca and Mg salts of soap are insoluble, binding to the Ca and Mg ions and precipitating as "soap scum"
• Emulsifier


  Substance that stabilizes an emulsion by reducing the surface tension between the two liquids
• Micelle formation


  1. Oil-loving parts group together on the inside, not contacting the water at all

  2. Micelles trap fats in the center

  3. With agitation, the micelles are dispersed into the water and removed from the previously dirt surface
• Surfactants


  Surface active agents that reduce the surface tension of water, allowing the water molecules to better wet the surface and thus increasing water's ability to dissolve dirt and oily stains
• What happens to soaps in hard water
• Detergents


  Water-soluble cleansing agent which combines with impurities and dirt to make them more soluble. Do not form soap scum with the salts in hard water. They may come in the form of powders or liquid.
• Detergent molecule


  • Possess a hydrophilic (polar) head and an elongated hydrophobic (non-polar) tail
  • Oil-soluble part is usually an 8 to 18 carbon hydrocarbon
  • Water soluble part can be -COO-Na+, -SO4-Na+, -SO3-Na+, -OH
• How detergents work


  1. Reduce the surface tension of water and boost cleansing performance

  2. Builders and additives boost detergent power and prevent re-deposition of soil from the wash water on fabrics
• Anionic surfactant


  Carry a negative charge such as R-COO−, RSO4−, or RSO3−, where R represents an organic group. They are electrolytes, surface-active ions, and adsorb on various kinds of substrates giving them an anionic charge. This action contributes to the strong detergency and high foaming power.
• Cationic surfactant


  The cation is the surface-active component. They are also electrolytes, with a positive charge. Since most materials have negative charges in an aqueous media, the cationic surfactant molecules adsorb by orienting their hydrophilic head group toward the surface of the materials.
• Amphoteric surfactant


  Possess both cationic and anionic groups in the same molecule. They are rarely used as a main product component but are an important co-surfactant that boosts the detergency and the foaming power of anionic surfactants.
• Non-ionic surfactant


  Contain either OH] and/or hydroxyl [–OH] hydrophilic groups. They are nonelectrolytes, meaning their hydrophilic groups do not ionize at any pH value. They are commonly used for stabilizing oil-in-water (o/w) and water-in-oil (w/o) emulsions.
• Detergent manufacturing (powdered)


  1. Liquid and dry materials are mixed to form a slurry in a tank called Crutcher

  2. The slurry is heated and pumped to the top of a tower where it is sprayed through nozzles under high pressure to produce small droplets

  3. The droplets fall through a current of hot air, forming hollow granules as they dry

  4. Dry granules are collected from the bottom of the spray tower where they are screened to achieve a relatively uniform size

  5. After the granules have been cooled, builders (heat sensitive) such as bleach, enzymes, and fragrance are added.
• Detergent manufacturing (liquid)


  1. Batch and continuous blending processes are used

  2. Stabilizers may be added to endure uniformity and stability of the finished product

  3. Dry and liquid raw materials are added and blended to a uniform mixture using in-line or static mixers.
• Biodegradation of detergents
• Lower biodegradability


  Lower cost
• Higher biodegradability


  More expensive
• Glycerine/Glycerol


  A clear, non-toxic liquid found in soaps. It is a natural by-product of saponification. Used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, food, etc. Natural glycerine is a by-product of soap production, while synthetic glycerine is less common and made from petrochemicals.
• Lauric acid


  A saturated fatty acid with 12 carbon atoms, found primarily in coconut oil and palm kernel oil.
• Linoleic acid


  An essential polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) with 18 carbon atoms and two double bonds, found in vegetable oils such as safflower, soybean, and corn oils.
• Linolenic acid


  An essential PUFA with 18 carbon atoms and three double bonds, found in flaxseed, walnuts, and canola oils.