chapter 2

• Weather refers to daily changes in atmospheric conditions (temperature, rainfall, humidity, and pressure) for a short period of time locally
• Climate

  The generalization of day to day weather conditions of a particular area/region over a long period of time (33 years)
• Climatic zones of Pakistan

  • Highland climate
  • Lowland climate
  • Arid climate
  • Coastal climate
• Climatic elements responsible for seasonal variations in Pakistan

  • Temperature
  • Rainfall
  • Pressure
  • Winds
• Temperature and rainfall are dependent on the influence of the sun, varying with factors like the angle of the sun at a particular place
• Temperature is dependent on altitude


  There is an average drop of 6.5°C in temperature for each 1000-meter increase in altitude
• The air is densest at sea level due to water vapour, dust particles, and solar radiation and least dense at high altitude because of less solar radiation is absorbed with less air to absorb heat
• There is an average drop of 6.5°C in temperature for each 1000 meter increase in altitude
• Temperatures decrease when clouds appear and block out the Sun’s rays


  Reflected back into space
• Cloud formation


  Air contains sufficient moisture and has been sufficiently cooled
• Cloudy days are much cooler than sunny days during the same months
• Continental effect refers to areas having distance from the sea (interior region) hence does not get maritime influence of the sea on temperature
• Extreme winters and summers are recorded in areas affected by the continental effect
• Sources of rainfall in Pakistan

  • Monsoon Winds
  • The Western Depression
  • Convectional Currents
  • Relief rainfall
  • Tropical Cyclones
• Monsoons are seasonal winds that blow from sea towards land from July to August (summers) and reverse their direction blowing from land towards the sea in winters
• There are two monsoon systems, one originating from the Bay of Bengal and the other from the Arabian Sea
• Moist laden winds from high-pressure areas of the sea blow towards land, affecting northern Punjab, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Gilgit-Baltistan, and Azad Kashmir
• Another monsoon system originates in the Arabian Sea and delivers little rainfall to Sindh
• The Western Depression wind systems originate from the Mediterranean Sea and bring rainfall to Pakistan during winters
• Convection rainfall occurs when the sun heats up the land, causing air to rise and moisture to condense into clouds, leading to rainfall
• Relief or orographic rain is formed when air is forced to cool when it rises over relief features in the landscape such as hills or mountains, causing condensation and precipitation
• Thunderstorms occur similarly to convectional rainfall but with the air rising very quickly, forming Cumulonimbus clouds, followed by strong winds, lightning, heavy rainfall, and possibly hailstones
• Cyclones are formed when the average temperature of a large water body exceeds 27°C, creating an area of very low pressure that draws air quickly, resulting in intense lightning, strong winds, heavy rainfall, and effects similar to floods
• Exceeds 27° C, forming an area of very low pressure which draws further air from high pressure areas quickly
• Cone formation


  Occurs when two oppositely travelling cold and warm winds meet
• Intense lightning followed by very strong winds and heavy rainfall


  Occurs when a cone is formed
• Effects of intense lightning, strong winds, and heavy rainfall

  Similar to that of floods
• Flood is a temporary covering of land by water which is dry
• Causes of floods

  • Heavy monsoon rainfall accompanied with melting of snow and ice in glaciers causing excess of water in rivers
  • Dam or barrage failure
  • Unusually high tides in coastal areas
  • Tsunami
• Human reasons for floods

  • Deforestation
  • Failure to heighten or strengthen embankments
  • Poor medical and communication facilities in aftermath of disaster
  • Inadequate warning systems to allow people time for escape
• Benefits of floods

  • Restoring underground water supplies
  • Filling reservoirs of dam
  • Making the soil fertile by alluvial deposits
  • Increasing fish production in the sea and land
• Reducing effects of floods

  • Building dams to contain and regulate the flow of water
  • Installing advanced warning systems in flood-prone areas
  • Regularly updating and checking medical and transport facilities
  • Heightening and strengthening embankments and levees
  • Carrying out afforestation and reafforestation projects in Northern Mountains to reduce run-off and thus reducing chances of flash floods
• Types of droughts

  • Permanent drought
  • Seasonal drought
  • Invisible drought
  • Unpredictable drought
• Effects of droughts

  • Dramatically reduced crop yields and livestock production
  • Dust storms
  • Habitat damage affecting wildlife
  • Malnutrition, dehydration, and related diseases
  • Mass migration causing an increase in internal or international refugees
  • Reduced electricity production
  • Shortages of water for industries
  • Social unrest
  • Potential war over natural resources
  • Common wildfires causing health hazards
• The Battle of Badr


  624
• Hazrat Muhammad's war with Makkah Mukaramah was for one reason only - the struggle for the survival of Allah's word
• The migration of Hazrat Muhammad and the Muslims to Madina Munawwarah had turned the Makkans more hostile and they constantly kept on thinking of how they could overthrow him, and put an end to Islam
• The Makkans conspired with the Jews around Madina Munawwarah for this purpose, and with their allies started to raid Muslims' property in the outskirts of Madina Munawwarah destroying the fruit trees and carrying away flocks
• Hazrat Muhammad knew that the one weakness of the Quraysh was their caravan trade, and if he could block that trade they would be forced to make peace with him
• After Hijra, the Muslims were also given permission to fight their enemies. Allah revealed in Surah al-Hajj, verse 39 Permission to fight is given unto those who fight because they have been wronged and Allah is able to give them victory