geography

• Topography


  The detailed study of the surface features of a region
• Hills and Mountains


  A Hill is generally considered to be an elevated piece of land less than 600 - 610 meters high, and a Mountain is an elevation of land that is more than 610m high. Some hills are called mountains while some mountains are referred to as hills
• Mountain Range


  A succession of mountains which have the same direction, age, and same causes of formation. A snowfield is a huge permanent expanse of snow
• Relief/Topography


  The condition of the land related to the rocks, ups and downs, eroded and depositional features like valleys, rock type, passes, etc.
• Drainage


  Related to the eroded and depositional features of the rivers like ox-bow lake, meander, levees, etc. All types of river patterns including dendritic are part of drainage
• Gorges


  An irregular depression in a valley
• Cirque


  A regular depression made by the movement of glaciers
• Valley


  Plain land between two mountains
• Passes


  A natural path which connects two areas in a mountainous region
• Snowfield

  A plain field covered with snow usually above the snow line (4000m)
• Ravine


  A deep narrow gorge with steep sides
• Gully


  A ravine formed by water activity
• Glaciers


  Tongue-shaped mass of ice moving slowly down the valley
• Streams/Springs


  Channels of water from snow-capped mountains towards the valley
• Cirque/Corrie


  A steep-walled basin or a kind of lake. Example: Lake Saif ul Mulook
• Serrated Landscape

  Elevated mountain zone used for agriculture
• Bare Rock


  Rock without vegetation due to the accumulation of snow
• Scree


  Accumulation of loose rock debris
• Abrasion


  The scraping of rock surface frozen into the moving ice
• Plucking

  When ice freezes onto rock surface and pulls off pieces or blocks of moving ice
• The Northern Mountains are divided into three main mountain ranges: the Karakoram, the Himalayas, and the Hindu Kush
• Northern Mountains

  • Karakoram
  • Himalayas
  • Hindu Kush
• Karakoram

  • Average Altitude: 6000m
  • Highest peak: K2 (8610m)
  • Lifestyle: Nomadic agriculture and livestock is practiced
  • Products: Apples, Barley, Millets
  • Valleys: Gilgit, Hunza, Baltistan
• Himalayas

  • Average Altitude: 4000m lesser or lower Himalayas
  • Highest peak: Nanga Parbat (8126m)
  • Lifestyle: Nomadic
  • Economic activity: Tourism, agriculture, and livestock is practiced
  • Important locations: Murree, Nathya Gali, Ghora Gali
  • Valleys: Murri, Gullies, Naran, Kaghan
• Hindu Kush

  • Average Altitude: 5000m
  • Highest peak: TirichMir (7690m)
  • Historical Importance: Alexander, Timurlane, Mughals, Ghazni, and Ghauris passed it to attack India
  • Important locations: Swat, Kohistan, Chitral, Dir
  • Products: Rice, Apples, Apricots, Tobacco
  • Valleys: Swat, Chitral, Dir
• The Karakoram runs from South East to North-West with an average height of 6000m


  They have an average height of 6000m
• The Himalayas run from South-East to North-West with an average height of 4000m


  They have an average height of 4000m
• The Hindu Kush runs from North East to South West with an average height of 5000m


  They have an average height of 5000m
• Physical features of mountain ranges

  • Deep narrow valleys like Gilgit and Chitral
  • Snow-capped mountains with steep-sided slopes
  • Conically shaped peaks with altitude increasing from South towards the North
  • Fast-flowing rivers like River Gilgit forming alluvial fans and deep narrow gorges
  • Massive glaciers like Baltoro, Batura, and Siachen
  • Soil cover on slopes is extremely thin with bare rocks supporting little plant growth above snowline
  • Rocks undergo weathering by wind, water, and lichens breaking down into small soil particles over time
• Drainage features

  1. Indus starts from Manasarover lake in Karakoram range moving towards south joins river Kabul at Attock and enters the plain of Punjab at Kalabagh

  2. Southern slopes of the Himalayas are drained by Eastern tributaries of the River Indus: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas

  3. All these Rivers run in North-East to South West direction

  4. Snowfields are found in areas above 4000m and feed the rivers in summers
• Range is the only range, which has some existing snow capped peaks. Other ranges are quite dry.
• These mountains generally have bare rocks due to low rainfall and in some cases very high temperatures (which leads to high rate of evaporation).
• These mountain ranges have steep sided peaks along with deep narrow valleys and gorges
• The Safed Koh range is drained by River Kabul, which runs in a West to East direction and eventually joins River Indus. The Waziristan hills are drained by small seasonal rivers like Kurram, Tochi, and Gomal.
• These rivers run from West to East, and all are the Western tributaries of the River Indus. The Sulaiman range is drained by small hill torrents and small seasonal rivers such as the Bolan and Mula.
• These rivers usually lead to small inland lakes, where the water collects and then dries up (for example the lake Damas). The rain falling on Eastern slopes of Sulaiman range runs down the slopes and falls into piedmont plains leading to the formation of alluvial fans.
• The Kirthar range on the other hand is drained by the River Hab (seasonal river), which flows in a North to South direction and eventually joins the Arabian Sea.
• Plateau: is an area of highland, which is usually flat although a heavily dissected plateau can also exist.
• Features of Balochistan Plateau

  • Height varying from around 600m to around 3000m
  • Total covered area of 347190 sq km
  • Deep narrow valleys like Quetta
  • Bare rocks due to lack of rainfall
  • Steep slopes and none are snow capped
  • Parallel ranges running in an East to West direction like Chagai Hills, Raskoh Range, and Makran Coastal Range
  • Parallel ranges running North-South direction like Central Brahui and the Hala range
• In the Southern part of the Balochistan Plateau, the River Dasht and River Porali flow from north to South, thus eventually draining into the Arabian Sea. Both are seasonal rivers; they flow only during the rainy season.